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A HISTORY

ov

THE PHILIPPINES

BY

DAVID P. BARROWS, Ph.D.

General Superintendent of Public Instruction for tlie Pliilippine Islands

NEW YOEK ■. ■ CINCINNATI • . • CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

COPTBIGHT, 1905, BY

DAVID p. BABEOWS

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London

Barrows, Philippines

w. p. I

PREFACE

This book has been prepared at the suggestion of the
educational authorities for pupils in the public high schools
of the Philippines, as an introduction to the history of
their country. Its preparation occupied about two years,
while the author was busily engaged in other duties, —
much of it being written while he was traveling or ex-
ploring in diiferent parts of the Archipelago. No pre-
tensions are made to an exhaustive character for the book.
For the writer, as well as for the pupil for whom it is
intended, it is an introduction into the study of the
history of Malaysia.

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in securing
the necessary historical sources, but it is believed that the
principal ones have been read. The author is greatly
indebted to the Honorable Dr. Pardo de Tavera for the
use of rare volumes from his library, and he wishes to
acknowledge also the kindness of Mr. Manuel Yriarte,
Chief of the Bureau of Archives, for permission to exam-
ine public documents. The occasional reprints of the old
Philippine histories have, however, been used more fre-
quently than the original editions. The splendid series
of reprinted works on the Philippines, promised by Miss
Blair and Mr. Robertson, was not begun in time to be
used in the preparation of this book. The appearance of
this series will make easy a path which the present writer

4 PREFACE

has found comparatively difficult, and will open the way
for an incomparably better History of the Philippines than
has ever yet been made.

The drawings of ethnographic subjects, which partly
illustrate this book, were made from objects in the Philip-
pine Museum by Mr. Anselmo Espiritu, a teacher in the
public schools of Manila. They are very accurate.

Above every one else, in writing this book, the author
is under obligations to his wife, without whose constant
help and encouragement it could not have been written.

DAVID P. BAIiROWS.
Manila, Philippine Islands,
March Isx, 1903.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

I. The Philippines as a Subject for Historical Study . 9

II. The Peoples of the Philippines 25

III. Europe and the Far East about 1400 A.B 42

IV. The Great Geographical DiscoYeries 61

V. Filipino People Before the Arrival of the Spaniards 88

VI. The Spanish Soldier and the Spanish Missionary . . 108

VII. Period of Conquest and Settlement, 1565-1600 . . 125

VIII. The Philippines Three Hundred Years Ago . . . 156

IX. The Dutch and Moro Wars, 1600-1663 . . . 187

X. A Century of Obscurity and Decline, 163S-1762 . . . 212

XI. The Philippines During the Period of European Revo-

lution, 1762-1837 231

XII. Progress and Revolution, 1837-1807 . . 259

XIII. America and the Philippines . . . 287

Appendix .... . . 321

Index . 325

(5)

LIST OF MAPS.

PA«E

Philippine Islands .... . 6, 7

Countries and Peoples of Malaysia ... , , . . 26, 27

Races and Tribes of the Philippines ... .... .30

Tlie Spread of Mohammedanism 39

Europe about 1400 A.D 44

Routes of Trade to the Far East ... .... , . 50

The Countries of the Far East . 58

Restoration of Tosoanelli's Map . . .69

Early Spanish Discoveries in the Philippines . . ... 77

The New World and the Indies as divided between Spain and

Portugal 85

Conquest and Settlement by the Spauiai'ds in the Philippines,

1505-1-590 124

Straits of Manila . . .* . ... . 183

The City of Manila 134

Luzon 158, 169

Mindanao, Visayas, and Paragua 288, 289

American Campaigns in Northern Luzon 302

(8)

HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES.

CHAPTER I.

THE PHILIPPINES AS A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL

STUDY. ■

Purpose of this Book. — This book has been written for
the young men and yoimg women of the Philippines. It
is intended to introduce them into the history of their
own island coimtry. The subject of Philippine history is
much broader and more splendid than the size and char-
acter of this little book reveal. Many subjects have only
been briefly touched upon, and there are many sources of
information, old histories, letters and official documents,
which the writer had not time and opportunity to study
in the preparation of this work. It is not too soon, how-
ever, to present a history of the Philippines, even though
imperfectly written, to the Philippine people themselves;
and if this book serves to direct young men and young
women to a study of the history of their own island coun-
try, it will have fulfilled its purpose.

The Development of the Philippines and of Japan. — In
many ways the next decade of the history of the Philip-
pine Islands may resemble the splendid development of
the neighboring country of Japan. Both countries have
in past times been isolated more or less from the fife and
thought of the modern world. Both are now open to the
full current of human affairs. Both countries promise to
play an important part in the politics and commerce of

10 THE PHILIPPINES.

the Far East. Geographically, the Philippines occupy the
more central and influential position, and the success of
the institutions of the Philippines may react upon the
countries of southeastern Asia and Malaysia to an extent
that we cannot appreciate or foresee. Japan, by reason
of her larger population, the greater industry of her people,
a more orderly social life, and devoted public spirit, is at
the present time far in the lead.

The Philippines. — But the Philippines possess certain
advantages which, in the course of some years, may tell
strongly in her favor. There are greater natural resotu-ces,
a richer soil, and more tillable ground. The population,
while not large, is increasing rapidly, more rapidly, in fact,
than the population of Japan or of Java. And in the
character of her institutions the Philippines have certain
advantages. The position of woman, while so unfortunate
in Japan, as in China and nearly all eastern countries, in
the Philippines is most fortunate, and is certain to tell
effectually upon the advancement of the race in competi-
tion with other eastern civilizations. The fact that Chris-
tianity is the established religion of the people makes
possible a sympathy and imderstandtng between the Phil-
ippines and western coimtries.

Japan. — Yet there are many lessons which Japan can
teach the Philippines, and one of these is of the advantages
and rewards of fearless and thorough study. Fifty years
ago, Japan, which had rigorously excluded all intercourse
with foreign nations, was forced to open its doors by an
American fleet under Commodore Perry. At that time
the Japanese knew nothmg of western history, and had no
knowledge of modern science. Their contact with the
Americans and other foreigners revealed to them the in-
feriority of their knowledge. The leaders of the country

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 11

awoke to the necessity of a study of western countries
and their great progress, especially in government and in
the sciences.

Japan had at her service a special class of people known
as the samurai, who, in the life of Old Japan, were the
free soldiers of the feudal nobility, and who were not only
the fighters of Japan, but the students and scholars as
well. The young men of this samurai class threw them-
selves earnestly and devotedly into the study of the great
fields of Imowledge, which had previously been unknown
to the Japanese. At great sacrifice many of them went
abroad to other lands, in order to study in foreign uni-
versities. Numbers of them went to the United States,
frequently working as servants in college towns in order
to procure the means for the pursuit of their education.

The Japanese Government in every way began to adopt
measures for the transformation of the Icnowledge of the
people. Schools were opened, laboratories established, and
great numbers of scientific and historical books were trans-
lated into Japanese. A public school system was organized,
and finally a university was established. The Government
sent abroad many young men to study in almost every
branch of knowledge and to return to the service of the
people. The manufacturers of Japan studied and adopted
western machinery and modern methods of production.
The government itself underwent revolution and reorgani-
zation upon lines more liberal to the people and more
favorable to the national spirit of the country. The
result has been the transformation, in less than fifty years,
of what was formerly an isolated and ignorant country.

The Lesson- for the Filipinos. — Th\s is the great
lesson which Japan teaches the Philippines. If there is
to be transformation here, with a constant growth of

12 THE PHILIPPINES.

knowledge and advancement, and an elevation of the
character of the people as a whole, there must be a cour-
ageous and imf altering search for the truth: and the young
men and young women of the Philippines must seek the
advantages of education, not for themselves, but for the
benefit of their people and their land; not to gain for
themselves a selfish position of social and economic ad-
vantage over the poor and less educated Filipinos, but in
order that, having gained these advantages for themselves,
they may in turn give them to their less fortunate coim-
trymen. The young Fihpino, man or woman, must learn
the lessons of truthfulness, courage, and unselfishness, and
in all of his gaining of knowledge, and in his use of it as
well, he must practice these virtues, or his learning will
be an evil to his land and not a blessing.

The aim of this book is to help him to imderstand, first
of all, the place that the Philippines occupy in the modem
history of nations, so that he may understand how far
and from what beginnings the Filipino people have pro-
gressed, toward what things the world outside has itself
moved during this time, and what place and opportunities
the FiUpinos, as a people, may seek for in the future.

The Meaning of History. — History, as it is written and
understood, comprises many centuries of human life and
achievement, and we must begin our study by discussing
a little what history means. Men may live for thousands
of years without having a life that may be called his-
torical; for history is formed only where there are credible
written records of events. Until we have these records,
we have no ground for historical study, JDut leave the
field to another study, which we call Archeology, or Pre-
historic Culture.

Historical Races. — Thus there are great races which

A SUBJECT FOB HISTORICAL STUDY. 13

have no history, for they have left no records. Either the
people could not write, or their writings have been de-
stroyed, or they told nothing about the life of the people.
The history of these races began only with the coming of
a historical, or more advanced race among them.

Thus, the history of the black, or negro, race begins
only with the exploration of Africa by the white race,
and the history of the American Indians, except perhaps
of those of Peru and Mexico, begins only with the white
man's conquest of America. The white, or European, race
is, above all others, the great historical race; but the yel-
low race, represented by the Chinese, has also a historical
Ufe and development, beginning many centuries before the
birth of Christ.

The European Race. — For thousands of years the
white race was confined to the countries bordering the
Mediterranean Sea. It had but little contact with other
races of men and almost no knowledge of countries beyond
the Mediterranean shores. The great continents of Amer-
ica and Australia and the beautiful island-world of the
Pacific and Indian oceans were scarcely dreamed of. This
was the status of the white race in Europe a little more
than five hundred years ago. How different is the posi-
tion of this race to-day! It has now explored nearly the
entire globe. The white people have crossed every con-
tinent and every sea. On every continent they have estab-
lished colonies and over many countries their power.

During these last five centuries, besides this spread of
geographical discoveries, the mingling of all the races, and
the founding of great colonies, has come also the develop-
ment of scientific knowledge — great discoveries and in-
ventions, such as the utilization of steam and electricity,
which give to man such trememdous power over the

14 THE PHILIPPINES.

material world. Very important changes have also marked
the religious and political life of the race. Within these
years came the Protestant revolt from the Roman Catho-
lic Church, destroying in some degree the unity of Chris-
tendom; and the great revolutions of Europe and America,
estabhshing democratic and representative governments.

The European Race and the Filipino People. —
This expansion and progress of the Eiu"opean race early
brought it into contact with the Filipino people, and the
historical life of the Philippines dates from this meeting
of the two races. Thus the history of the Philippines has
become a part of the history of nations. During these
centuries the people of these islands, subjects of a Euro-
pean nation, have progressed in social life and govern-
ment, in education and industries, in numbers, and in
wealth. They have often been stirred by wars and revo-
lutions, by centuries of piratical invasion, and fear of con-
quest by foreign nations. But these dangers have now
passed away.

There is no longer fear of piratical ravage nor of foreign
invasion, nor is there longer great danger of internal re-
volt; for the Philippines are at the present time imder a
government strong enough to defend them against other
powers, to put down plunder and ravage, and one anxious
and disposed to afford to the people such freedom of op-
portimity, such advantages of government and life, that
the incentive to internal revolution will no longer exist.
Secure from external attack and rapidly progressing toward
internal peace, the Philippines occupy a position most for-
tunate among the peoples of the Far East. They have
representative government, freedom of religion, and pub-
lic education, and, what is more than all else to the aspir-
ing or ambitious race or individual, freedom of opportunity.

A SUBJECT FOB TIISTOlilCAL STUDY. 15

How History is Written. — One other thing should be
explained here. Every child who reads this book should
understand a httle how history is written. A most nat-
ural inquiry to be made regarding any historical state-
ment is, "How is this known?" And this is as proper a
question for the school boy as for the statesman. The
answer is, that history rests for its facts largely upon the
written records made by people who either lived at the
time these things took place, or so near to them that, by
careful inquiry, they could learn accurately of these mat-
ters and write them down in some form, so that we to-day
can read their accounts, and at least know how these
events appeared to men of the time.

But not all that a man writes, or even puts in a book,
of things he has seen and known, is infallibly accurate
and free 'from error, partiahty, and untruthfulness. So
the task of the historian is not merely to read and accept
all the contemporary records, but he must also compare
one account with another, weighing all that he can find,
making due allowance for prejudice, and on his own part
trying to reach a conclusion that shall be true. Of course,
where records are few the task is difficult indeed, and, on
the other hand, material may be so volimiinous as to
occupy a writer a lifetime, and make it impossible for any
one man completely to exhaust a subject.

Historical Accounts of the Philippines. — For the Philip-
pines we are so fortunate as to have many adequate
sources of a reliable and attractive kind. In a few words
some of these will be described. Nearly all exist in at
least a few libraries in the Philippines, where they may
sometime be consulted by the Filipino student, and many
of them, at least in later editions, may be purchased by
the student for his own possession and study.

16 THE PHILIPPINMS.

The Voyages of Discovery. — European discovery of
the Philippines began with the great voyage of Magellan;
and recounting this discovery of the islands, there is the
priceless narrative of one of Magellan's company, Antonio
Pigafetta. His book was written in Italian, but was first
published in a French translation. The original copies
made by Pigafetta have disappeared, but in 1800 a copy
was discovered in the Ambrosian Library of Milan, Italy,
and published. Translations into English and other lan-
guages exist. It may be found in several collections of
Voyages, and there is a good Spanish translation and edi-
tion of recent date. {El Primer Viaje alrededor del
Mundo, por Antonio Pigafetta, traducido por Dr. Carlos
Amoretti y anotado por Manuel Walls y. Merino, Madrid,
1899.) There are several other accoimts of Magellan's
voyage; but Pigafetta's was the only one written by an
eye-witness, and his descriptions of the Bisaya Islands,
Cebu, Borneo, and the Moluccas are wonderfully interest-
ing and accurate.

There were several voyages of discovery between
Magellan's time (1521) and Legaspi's time (1565). These
include the expeditions of Loaisa, Saavedra, and Villalo-
bos, and accounts of them are to be found in the great
series of publications made by the Spanish Government
and called Coleccion de documentos ineditos, and, in another
series, Navarrete's Coleccion de los viajes y descubrimi-
entos.

Spanish Occupation and Conquest. — As we come to
the history of Spanish occupation and conquest of the
Philippines, we find many interesting letters and reports
sent by both soldiers and priests to the king, or to persons
in Spain. The first complete book on the Philippines was
written by a missionary about 1602, Father Predo
Chirino's Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, printed in Rome

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 17

in 1604. This important and curious narrative is exceed-
ingly rare, but a reprint, although rude and poor, was
made in Manila in 1890, which is readily obtainable. The
Belacion de las Islas Filipinas was followed in 1609 by
the work of Judge Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas
Filipinas. This very rare work was printed in Mexico.
In 1890 a new edition was brought out by Dr. Jose Rizal,
from the copy in the British Museum. There is also an
English translation.

These two works abound in curious and valuable infor-
mation upon the Filipino people as they were at the time
of the arrival of the Spaniards, as does also a later work,
the Conquista de las Islas Filipinas, by Friar Gaspar de
San Augustin, print(;d in Madrid in 1698. This latter is
perhaps the most interesting and most important early
work on the Philippine Islands.

As we shall see, the history of the Philippines is closely
connected with that of the East Indian Spice Islands.
When the Spanish forces took the rich island of Temate
in 1606, the triumph was commemorated by a volume,
finely written, though not free from mistakes, the Covr
quista de las Islas Moluccas, by Leonardo de Argensola,
Madrid, 1609. There is an old English translation, and
also French and Dutch translations.

To no other religious order do we owe so much historical
information as to the Jesuits. The scholarship and liter-
ary ability of the Company have always been high. Chi-
rino was a Jesuit, as was also Father Francisco Colin, who
wrote the Labor Evangelica, a narrative of the Jesuit mis-
sions in the Philippines, China, and Japan, which was
printed in Madrid in 1663. This history was continued
years later by Father Murillo Velarde, who wrote what
he called the Segunda Parte, the Historia de la Provincia
de Filipinas de la Campania de Jesus, Manila, 1749.

18 THE PHILIPPINES.

There is another notable Jesuit work to which we owe
much of the early history of the great island of Mindanao :
this is the Historia de Mindanao y Jolo, by Father Fran-
cisco Combes. The year 1663 marked, as we shall see, an
epoch in the relations between the Spaniards and the
Mohammedan Malays. In that year the Spaniards aban-
doned the fortress of Zamboanga, and retired from south-
ern Mindanao. The Jesuits had been the missionaries in
those parts of the southern archipelago, and they made
vigorous protests against the abandonment of More terri-
tory. One result of their efforts to secure the reoccupancy
of these fortresses was the notable work mentioned above.
It is the oldest and most important writing about the
island and the inhabitants of Mindanao. It was printed
in Madrid in 1667. A beautiful and exact edition was
brought out a few years ago, by Retana.

A Dominican missionary, Father Diego Aduarte, wrote
a very important work, the Historia de la Provincia del
Sando Rosario de la Orden de Predicadores en Filipinas,
Japan y China, which was printed in Manila at the Col-
lege of Santo Tomas in 1640.

"We may also mention as containing a most interesting
accotmt of the Philippines about the middle of the seven-
teenth century, the famous work on China, by the Domini-
can, Father Fernandez Navarrete, Tratados historicos, politi-
cos, ethnicos, y religiosos de la Monarchia de China, Madrid,
1767. Navarrete arrived in these islands in 1648, and was
for a time a cura on the island of Mindoro. Later he was
a missionary in China, and then Professor of Divinity in
the University of Santo Tomas. His work is translated
into English in Churchill's Collection of Voyages and Trav-
els, London, 1744, setjond volume.

The eighteenth century is rather barren of interesting

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 19

historical matter. There was considerable activity in the
production of grammars and dictionaries of the native
languages, and more histories of the religious orders were
also produced. These latter, while frequently filled with
ssctarian matter, should not be overlooked.

Between the years 1788 and 1792 was pubHshed the
voluminous Historia General de Filipinas, in fourteen vol-
umes, by the Recollect friar. Father Juan de la Concep-
cion. The work aboimds in superfluous matter and
trivial details, yet it is a copious source of information, a
veritable mine of historical data, and is perhaps the best
known and most frequently used work upon the Philip-
pine Islands. There are a number of sets in the Philip-
pines which can be consulted by the student.

Some years after, and as a sort of protest against so
extensive a treatment of history, the sane and admirable
Augustinian, Father Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga, wrote
his Historia de las Islas Filipinas, a volimie of about seven
hundred pages. It was printed in Sampaloc, Manila, in
1803. This writer is exceptional for his fairmindedness,
his freedom from the narrow prejudices which have char-
acterized most of the writers on the Philippines. His
language is terse and spirited, and his volume is the most
readable and, in many ways, the most valuable attempt
at a history of the Philippines. His narrative closes with
the English occupation of Manila in 1763.

Recent Histories and Other Historical Materials.
— The sources for the conditions and history of the islands
during the last century differ somewhat from the preced-
ing. The documentary sources in the form of public
papers and reports are available, and there is a consider-
able mass of pamphlets dealing with special questions in
the PhiUppines. The publication of the official journal of

20 THE PHILIPPINES.

the Government, the Gazeta de Manila, commenced in
1861. It contains all acts of legislation, orders of the
Governors, pastoral letters, and other official matters,
down to the end of Spanish rule.

A vast amount of material for the recent civil history
of the islands exists in the Archives of the PhiHppines, at
Manila, but these documents have been very httle ex-
amined. Notable among these original documents is the
series of Royal Cedulas, each bearing the signature of the
King of Spain, " Yo, el Rey." They run back from, the last
years of sovereignty to the commencement of the seven-
teenth century. The early cedulas, on the estabhshment
of Spanish rule, are said to have been carried away by the
British army in 1763, and to be now in the British Museum.

Of the archives of the Royal Audiencia at Manila, the
series of judgments begins with one of 1603, which is
signed by Antonia de Morga. From this date they ap-
pear to be complete. The earliest records of the cases
which came before this court that can be found, date
from the beginning of the eighteenth century.

Of modern historical writings mention must be made of
the Historia de Filipinas, three volumes, 1887, by Montero
y Vidal, and the publications of W. E. Retana. To the
scholarship and enthusiasm of this last author much is
owed. His work has been the republication of rare and
important sources. His edition of Combes has already
been mentioned, and there should also be mentioned, and
if possible procured, his Archivo del Bibliofilo, four vol-
umes, a collection of rare papers on the islands, of differ-
ent dates; and his edition, the first ever published, of
Zuniga's Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas, an incomparable
survey of the islands made about 1800, by the priest and
historian whose history was mentioned above.

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 21

Accounts of Voyagers Who Visited the Philippines.
— These references give some idea of the historical liter-
ature of the Philippines. They comprise those works
which should be chiefly consulted. There should not be
omitted the numerous accounts of voyagers who have
visited these islands from time to time, and who frequently
give us very valuable information. The first of these are
perhaps the English and Dutch freebooters, who prowled
about these waters to waylay the richly laden galleons.
One of these was Dampier, who, about 1690, visited the
Ladrones and the Philippines. His New Voyage Around
the World was published in 1697. There was also Anson,
who in 1743 took the Spanish galleon off the coast of
Samar, and whose voyage is described in a volmne pub-
lished in 1745. There was an Italian physician, Carreri,
who visited the islands in 1697, in the course of a voyage
around the world, and who wrote an excellent description
of the Philippines, which is printed in English translation
in Churchill's Collection of Voyages.

A French expedition visited the East between 1774 and
1781, and the Commissioner, M. Sonnerat, has left a brief
accoimt of the Spanish settlements in the islands as they
then appeared. {Voyage aux Indes Orientates et h la
Chine, Paris, 1782, Vol. 3.)

There are a number of travellers' accounts written in
the last century, of which may be mentioned Sir John
Bowring's Visit to the Philippine Islands, 1859, and Jagor's
Reisen in der Philippinen, travels in the year 1859 and
1860, which has received translation into both English
and Spanish.

Bibliographies. — For the historical student a biblio-
graphical guide is necessary. Such a volume was brought
out in 1898, by Retana, Catalogo abreviado de la Biblioteca

22 THE PHILIPPINES.

Filipina. It contains a catalogue of five thousand seven
hundred and eighty works, pubhshed in or upon the
Phihppines. A still more exact and useful bibliography has
been prepared by the Honorable T. H. Pardo de Tavera,
Biblioteca Filipina, and is published by the United States
Government.

It is lamentable that the Philippines Government pos-
sesses no library of works on the Archipelago. The foun-
dation of such an institution seems to have been quite
neglected by the Spanish Government, and works on the
Philippines are scarcely to be found, except as they exist
in private collections. The largest of these is said to be
that of the Compania General de Tabacos, at Barcelona,
which has also recently possessed itself of the splendid
library of Retana. In Manila the Honorable Dr. Pardo
de Tavera possesses the only notable library in the islands.

Since the above was written the Phihppines Govern-
ment has commenced the collection of historic works in
the Philippines, and a talented young Filipino scholar,
Mr. Zulueta, has gone to Spain for extensive search, both
of archives and libraries, in order to enrich the public
collection in the Philippines.

The publication of a very extensive series of sources of
Philippine history has also been begun by the Arthur H.
Clark Company in the United States, under the editorship
of Miss E. H. Blair and Mr. J. A. Robertson. The series
will embrace fifty-five volumes, and will contain in English
translations all available historical material on the Philip-
pines, from the age of discovery to the nineteenth centurj'.
This notable collection will place within the reach of the
student all the important sources of his country's history
and will make possible a more extensive and accurate
writing of the history of the islands than has ever before
been possible.

A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY. 23

In addition to the published works, there repose nu-
merous unstudied documents of Philippine history in the
the Archives of the Indies at Seville.

Historical Work for the Filipino Student. — After read-
ing this book, or a similar introductory history, the stu-
dent should procure, one by one, as many as he can of
the volumes which have been briefly described above, and,
by careful reading and patient thought, try to round out
the story of his country and learn the lessons of the
history of his people. He will find it a study that will
stimulate his thought and strengthen his judgment; but
always he must search for the truth, even though the
truth is sometimes humiliating and sad. If there are re-
regrettable passages in our own lives, we cannot find
either happiness or improvement in trying to deny to
ourselves that we have done wrong, and so conceal and
minimize our error. So if there are dark places in the
history of our land and people, we must not obscure the
truth in the mistaken belief that we are defending our
people's honor, for, by trying to conceal the fact and ex-
cuse the fault, we only add to the shame. It is by frank
acknowledgment and clear depiction of previous errors
that the country's honor will be protected now and in
the future.

Very interesting and important historical work can be
done by the Filipino student in his own town or province.
The public and parish records have in many towns suf-
fered neglect or destruction. In all possible cases these
documents should be gathered up and cared for. For many
things, they are worthy of study. They can show the
growth of population, the dates of erection of the public
buildings, the former system of government, and social
conditions.

This is a work in which the patriotism of every young

24 THE PHILIPPINES.

man and woman can find an expression. Many sites
throughout the islands are notable for the historic occur-
rences which they witnessed. These should be suitably
marked with tablets or monuments, and the exact facts of
the events that took place should be carefully collected,
and put in writing. Towns and provinces should form
public libraries containing, among other works, books on
the Philippines; and it should be a matter of pride to the
young Filipino scholar to build up such local institutions,
and to educate his townsmen in their use and appreciation.
But throughout such studies the student should remem-
ber that his town or locality is of less importance, from a
patriotic standpoint, than his country as a whole; that the
interests of one section should never be placed above
those of the Archipelago; and that, while his first and fore-
most duty is to his town and to his people, among whom
he was born and nurtured, he owes a greater obligation to
his whole coimtry and people, embracing many different
islands and different tongues, and to the great Govern-
ment which holds and protects the Philippine Islands, and
which is making possible the free development of its
inhabitants.

CHAPTER II.
THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES.

The Study of Ethnology. — The study of races and peo-
ples forms a separate science from history, and is known
as ethnology, or the science of races. Ethnology informs
us how and where the different races of mankind origi-
nated. It explains the relationships between the races as
well as the differences of mind, of body, and of mode of
living which different people exhibit.

All such knowledge is of great assistance to the states-
man as he deals with the affairs of his own people and of
other peoples, and it helps private individuals of different
races to understand one another and to treat each other
with due respect, kindness, and sympathy. Inasmuch,
too, as the modern history which we are studying deals
with many different peoples of different origin and race,
and as much of our history turns upon these differences,
we must look for a little at the ethnology of the Philip-
pines.

The Negritos. — Physival Characteristics. — The great
majority of the natives of our islands belong to what is
usually called the Malayan race, or the Oceanic Mongols.
There is, however, one interesting little race scattered
over the Philippines, which certainly has no relationship
at all with Malayans. These little people are called by
the Tagdlog, "Aeta" or "Ita." The Spaniards, when
they arrived, called them "Negritos," or "little negroes,"
the name by which they are best known. Since they

25

o

o

110 Long-itude

East 120

}

FORMOSA

* BATANES

COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES

OF

MALAYSIA

SCALE OF MILES ON THE EQUATOR

aOo

8U0 1000

Mohammedan Malays {Javanese. Bugis, Sulus, etc.)
Filipinos {Christian)
Primitive Malayans {Pagan)
t0M^i^4 ^^^lanesians or Papuans ,

I Negritos ^

a

28 THE PHILIPPINES.

were without question the first inhabitants of these islands
of whom we have any knowledge, we shall speak of them
at once.

They are among the very smallest peoples in the world,
the average height of the men being about 145 centi-
meters, or the height of an American boy of twelve
years ; the women are correspondingly smaller. They
have such dark-brown skins that many people suppose
them to be quite black ; their hair is very wooly or kinky,
and forms thick mats upon their heads. In spite of these
peculiarities, they are not unattractive in appearance.
Their eyes are large and of a fine brown color, their fea-
tures are quite regular, and their little bodies often beau-
tifully shaped.

The appearance of these little savages excited the
attention of the first Spaniards, and there are many early
accounts of them. Padre Chirino, who went as a mis-
sionary in 1592 to Panay, begins the narrative of his labors
in that island as follows : " Among the Bisayas, there are
also sortie Negroes. They are less black and ugly than
those of Guinea, and they are much smaller and weaker,
but their hair and beard are just the same. They are
much more barbarous and wild than the Bisayas and
other Filipinos, for they have neither houses nor any fixed
sites for dwelling. They neither plant nor reap, but live
like wild beasts, wandering with their wives and children
through the mountains, almost naked. They hunt the
deer and wild boar, and when they kill one they stop
right there until all the flesh is consumed. Of property
they have nothing except the bow and arrow." ^

Manners and Customs. ^The Negritos still have this
wild, timid character, and few have ever been truly civ-
' Relacinn de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 38.

THE PEOPJjES of THE PHILIPPINES. 29

ilized in spite of the efforts of some of the Spanish mis-
sionaries. They still roam through the mountains, seldom
building houses, but making simply a little wall and roof
of brush to keep off the wind and rain. They kill deer,
wild pigs, monkeys, and birds, and in himting they are
very expert; but their principal food is wild roots and
tubers, which they roast in ashes. Frequently in travel-
ing through the mountains, although one may see nothing
of these timid little folk, he will see many large, freshly
dug holes from each of which they have taken out a root.

The Negritos ornament their bodies by making little
rows of cuts on the breast, back, and arms, and leaving
the scars in ornamental patterns; and some of them also
file their front teeth to points. In their hair they wear
bamboo combs with long plumes of hair or of the feathers
of the mountain cock. They have curious dances, and
ceremonies for marriage and for death.

Distribution. — The Negritos have retired from many
places where they lived when the Spaniards first arrived,
but there are still several thousand in Luzon, especially in
the Cordillera Zambales, on the Pacific coast, and in the
Sierra Madre range; and in the interior of Panay, Negros,
Tablas, and in Surigao of Mindanao.

Relation of the JV'egritos to Other Bwarfs of the
World. — Although the Negritos have had very Uttle ef-
fect on the history of the Philippines, they are of much
interest as a race to scientists, and we can not help asking.
Whence came these curious little people, and what does
their presence here signify? While science can not at
present fully answer these questions, what we do actually
know about these pygmies is full of interest.

The Aetas of the Philippines are not the only black
dwarfs in the world. A similar little people, who must

RACES ANK TRIBES OP THE
PHILIPPINES

SCALE OF MILES

T Zo" 100 150 3)0

SCALE OF KILOMETERS

"ll^O ^ 3&0

^^/^ FUiptnon (^OirietiaTiixed Peoples)
\primiHvc Malai/an Trihes {Pagarta)
MoroB {Mohammedans)
Negritos

O I F I O

^-^

Lonifitude 120

East from

30

124 Greenwich

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 31

belong to the same race, live in the mountains and jungles
of the Malay peninsula. On the Andaman Islands in the
Indian Ocean, all the aboriginal inhabitants are similar
pygmies, called "Mincopies." Some traces of their former
existence are reported from many other places in the
East Indies.

Thus it may be that there was a time when these little
men and women had much of this island-world quite to
themselves, and their race stretched unbrokenly from the
Philippines across Malacca to the Indian Ocean. As it
would have been impossible for so feeble a people to
force their way from one island to another after the
arrival of the stronger races, who have now confined
them to the mountainous interiors, we are obliged to
believe that the Negritos were on the ground first, and
that at one time they were more numerous. The Indian
archipelago was then a world of black pygmies. It
may be that they were even more extensive than this,
for one of the most curious discoveries of modern times
has been the finding of similar little blacks in the equa-
torial forests of Africa.

The Negritos must not be confused with the black or
negro race of New Guinea or Melanesia, who are com-
monly called Papuans; for those Negroes are of tall
stature and belong with the true Negroes of Africa,
though how the Negro race thus came to be formed of
two so widely separated branches we do not know.

The Malayan Race. — Origin of the Race. — It is
thought that the Malayan race originated in southeastern
Asia. From the mainland it spread down into the pen-
insula and so scattered southward and eastward over
the rich neighboring islands. Probably these early Ma-
layans foimd the little Negritos in possession and slowly

32 THE PHILIPPINES.

drove them backward, destroying them from many islands
until they no longer exist except in the places we have
already named.

With the beginning of this migratory movement which
carried them from one island to another of the great East
Indian Archipelago, these early Malayans must have in-
vented the boats and praos for which they are famed, and
have become skillful sailors living much upon the sea.

affect of the Migration. — Life for many generations,
upon these islands, so warm, tropical, and fruitful, gradu-
ually modified these emigrants from Asia, until they be-
came in mind and body quite a different race from the
Mongol inhabitants of the mainland.

Characteristics. — The Malayan peoples are of a light-
brown color, with a light yellowish undertone on some
parts of the skin, with straight black hair, dark-brown
eyes, and, though they are a small race in stature, they
are finely formed, muscular, and active. The phys'cal
type is nearly the same throughout all Malaysia, but the
different peoples making up the race differ markedly from
one another in culture. They are divided also by differ-
ences in religion. There are many tribes which are pagan.
On Bali and Lombok, little islands south of Java, the
people are still Brahmin, like most inhabitants of India.
In other parts of Malaysia they are Mohammedans, while
in the Philippines alone they are mostly Christians.

The "Wild Malayan Tribes. — Considering first the pagan
or the wild Malayan peoples, we find that in the interior
of the Malay Peninsula and of many of the islands, such
as Sumatra, Borneo and the Celebes, there are wild Ma-
layan tribes, who have come very little in contact with
the successive civilizing changes that have passed over
this archipelago. The true Malays call these folk " Orang

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 33

benua," or "men of the country." Many are almost
savages, some are cannibals, and others are headhunters
like some of the Dyaks of Borneo.

In, the Philippines, too, we find what is probably this
same class of wild people living in the mountains. They are
warlike, savage, and resist approach. Sometimes they eat
human flesh as a ceremonial act, and some prize above all
other trophies the heads of their enemies, which they cut
from the body and preserve in their homes. It is probable
that these tribes represent the earliest and rudest epoch
of Malayan culture, and that these were the first of this
race to arrive in the Philippines and dispute with- the Ne-
gritos for the mastery of the soil. In such wild state of
life, some of them, like the Manguianes of Mindoro, have
continued to the present day.

The Tribes in Northern Luzon. — In northern Luzon,
in the great Cordillera Central, there are many of these primi-
tive tribes. These people are preeminently mountaineers.
They prefer the high, cold, and semi-arid crests and val-
leys of the loftiest ranges. Here, with great industry, they
have made gardens by the building of stone-walled ter-
races on the slopes of the hills. Sometimes hundreds of
these terraces can be counted in one valley, and they rise one
above the other from the bottom of a cafion for several
miles almost to the summit of a ridge. These terraced
gardens are all under most careful irrigation. Water is
carried for many miles by log flumes and ditches, to be dis-
tributed over these little fields. The soil is carefully fer-
tilized with the refuse of the villages. Two and frequently
three crops are produced each year. Here we find un-
doubtedly the most developed and most nearly scientific
agriculture in the Philippines. They raise rice, cotton,
tobacco, the taro, maize, and especially the camote, or

34 THE PHILIPPINES.

sweet potato, which is their principal food. These people
live in compact, well-built villages, frequently of several
hundred houses. Some of these tribes, like the Igorrotes
of Benguet and the Tinguianes of Abra, are peaceable as
well as industrious. In Benguet there are fine herds of
cattle, much excellent coffee, and from time immemorial
the Igorrotes here have mined gold.

Besides these peaceful tribes there are in Bontoc, and
in the northern parts of the Cordillera, many large tribes,
with splendid mountain villages, who are nevertheless in a
constant and dreadful state of war. Nearly every town
is in feud with its neighbors, and the practice of taking
heads leads to frequent murder and combat. A most
curious tribe of persistent headhunters are the Ibilao, or
Ilongotes, who live in the Caraballo Sur Mountains between
Nueva Ecija and Nueva Vizcaya.

On other islands of the Philippines there are similar
wild tribes. On the island of Paragua there are the Tag-
baniia and other savage folk.

Characteristics of the Tribes of Mindanao. — In
Mindanao, there are many more tribes. Three of these
tribes, the Aetas, Mandaya, and Manobo, are on the eastern
coast and around Mount Apo. In Western Mindanao,
there is quite a large but scattered tribe called the Sub-
anon. These people make clearings on the hillsides and
support themselves by raising maize and mountain rice.
They also raise hemp, and from the fiber they weave truly
beautiful blankets and garments, artistically dyed in very
curious patterns. These peoples are nearly all pagans,
though a few are being gradually converted to Moham-
medanism, and some to Christianity. The pagans occa-
sionally practice the revolting rites of human sacrifice and
ceremonial cannibalism.

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 35

The Civilized Malayan Peoples. — Their Later Arrival.
— At a later date than the arrival of these primitive
Malayan tribes, there came to the Philippines others
of a more developed culture and a higher order of intel-
ligence. These peoples rapidly mastered the low country
and the coasts of all the islands, driving into the interior
the earlier comers and the aboriginal Negritos. These later
arrivals, though all of one stock, differed considerably,
and spoke different dialects belonging to one language
family. They were the ancestors of the present civilized
Filipino people.

Distribution, of These Peoples. — All through the cen-
tral islands, Panay, Negros, Leyte, Samar, Marinduque,
and northern Min-
danao, are the Bi-
say-a, the largest of
these peoples. At the
southern extremity
of Luzon, in the
provinces of Sorso-

gon and the Cama- Mindanao Beit of Bamboo Fiber.

rines, are the Bicol.

North of these, holding central Luzon, Batangas, Cavite,
Manila, Laguna, Bataan, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija, are
the Tagalog, while the great plain of northern Luzon is
occupied by the Pampango and Pangasinan. All the
northwest coast is inhabited by the Ilocano, and the
valley of the Cagayan by a people commonly called Caga-
yanes, but whose dialect is Ibanag. In Nueva Vizcaj^a
province, on the Batanes Islands and the Calamianes,
there are other distinct branches of the Filipino people,
but they are much smaller in numbers and less important
than the tribes marked above.

36

TBE PHILIPPINES.

Importance of These Peoples. — They form politically
and historically the Filipino people. They are the
Filipinos whom the Spaniards ruled for more than three
hundred years. All are converts to Christianity, and all
have attained a somewhat similar stage of civilization.

Early Contact of the Malays and Hindus. — These peo-
ple at the time of their arrival in the Philippines were
probably not only of a higher plane of intelligence than any

Mindanao Brass Vessels.

who had preceded them in the occupation of the islands,
but they appear to have had the advantages of contact
with a highly developed culture that had appeared in the
eastern archipelago some centuries earlier.

Early Civilization in India. — More than two thou-
sand years ago, India produced a remarkable civili-
zation. There were great cities of stone, magnificent
palaces, a life of splendid luxury, and a highly organized
social and political system. Writing, known as the San-
skrit, had been developed, and a great literature of poetiy

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 37

and philosophy produced. Two great religions, Brahmin-
ism and Buddhism, arose, the latter still the dominant
rehgion of Tibet, China, and Japan. The people who pro-
duced this civilization are known as the Hindus. Fourteen
or fifteen hundred years ago Hinduism spread over Burma,
Siam, and Java. Great cities were erected with splendid
temples and huge idols, the ruins of which still remain,
though their magnificence has gone and they are covered
to-day with the growth of the jungle.

Influence of Hindu Culture on the Malayan Peoples.
— This powerful civilization of the Hindus, established
thus in Malaysia, greatly affected the Malayan people on
these islands, as well as those who came to the Philip-
pines. Many words in the Tag^log have been shown
to have a Sanskrit origin, and the systems of writing
which the Spaniards found in use among several of the
Filipino peoples had certainly been developed from the
alphabet then in use among these Hindu peoples of
Java.

The Rise of Mohammedanism. — Mohammed. — A few
hundred years later another great change, due 'to religious
faith, came over the Malayan race, — a change which has
had a great effect upon the history of the Philippines, and
is still destined to modify events far into the future. This
was the conversion to Mohammedanism. Of all the great
religions of the world, Mohammedanism was the last to
arise, and its career has in some ways been the most re-
markable. Mohammed, its founder, was an Arab, born
about 572 a.d. At that time Christianity was established
entirely around the Mediterranean and throughout most
of Em-ope, but Arabia was idolatrous. Mohammed was
one of those great, prophetic souls which arise from time
to time in the world's history. All he could learn from

38 THE PUILIPPINES.

Hebrewism and Christianity, together with the result of
his own thought and prayers, led him to the belief in one
God, the Almighty, the Compassionate, the Merciful, who
as he believed would win all men to His knowledge through
the teachings of Mohammed himself. Thus inspired, Mo-
hammed became a teacher or prophet, and by the end of
his life he had won his people to his faith and inaugurated
one of the greatest eras of conquest the world has seen.

Spread of Mohaimnedanism to Africa and Europe.
— The armies of Arabian horsemen, full of fanatical
enthusiasm to convert the world to their faith, in a
century's time wrested from Christendom all Judea,
Syria, and Asia Minor, the sacred land where Jesus lived
and taught, and the countries where Paul and the other
apostles had first established Christianity. Thence they
swept along the north -coast of Africa, bringing to an end all
that survived of Roman power and religion, and by 720
they had crossed into Europe and were in possession of
Spain. For nearly the eight hundred years that followed,
the Christian Spaniards fought to drive Mohammedanism
from the peninsula, before they were successful.

The Conversion of the Malayans to Mohammed-
anism. — Not only did Mohammedanism move west-
ward over Africa and Europe, it was carried eastward as
well. Animated by their faith, the Arabs became the
greatest sailors, explorers, merchants, and geographers of
the age. They sailed from the Red Sea down the coast of
Africa as far as Madagascar, and eastward to India, where
they had settlements on both the Malabar and Coro-
mandel coasts. Thence Arab missionaries brought their
faith to Malaysia.

At that time the true Malays, the tribe from which
the common term "Malayan" has been derived, were a

40 THE PHILIPPINES.

small people of Sumatra. At least as early as 1250
they were converted to Mohammedanism, brought to them
by these Arabian mis.sionaries, and under the impulse of
this mighty faith they broke from their obscurity and
commenced that great conquest and expansion that has
diffused their power, language, and religion throughout
the East Indies.

Mohammedan Settlement in Borneo. — A powerful
Mohammedan Malay settlement was estabhshed on the
western coasts of Borneo certainly as early as 1400. The
more primitive inhabitants, like the Dyaks, who were a
tribe of the primitive Malayans, were defeated, and the
possession of the coast largely taken from them. From
this coast of Borneo came many of the adventurers
who were traversing the seas of the Philippines when the
Spaniards arrived.

TTie Mohammedan Population of Mindanao and
Jolo owes something certainly to this same Malay mi-
gration which founded the colony of Borneo. But the
Maguindanao and Illano Moros seem to be largely de-
scendants of primitive tribes, such as the Manobo and
Tiruray, who were converted to Mohanomedanism by Malay
and Arab proselyters. The traditions of the Maguindanao
Moros ascribe their conversion to Kabunsuan, a native of
Johore, the son of an Arab father and Malay mother. He
came to Maguindanao with a band of followers, and
from him the datos of Maguindanao trace their lineage.
Kabunsuan is supposed to be descended from Mohammed
through his Arab father, Ali, and so the datos of Maguin-
danao to the present day proudly believe that in their
veins flows the blood of the Prophet.

The Coming of the Spaniards. — Mohammedanism was
still increasing in the Philippines when the Spaniards ar-

THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 41

rived. The Mohammedans already had a foothold on
Manila Bay, and their gradual conquest of the archipelago
was interrupted only by the coming of the Europeans.
It is a strange historical occurrence that the Spaniards,
having fought with the Mohammedans for nearly eight
centuries for the possession of Spain, should have come
westward around the globe to the Philippine Islands
and there resumed the ancient conflict with them. Thus
the Spaniards were the most determined opponents of
Mohammedanism on both its western and eastern frontiers.
The'r ancient foes who crossed into Spain from Morocco
had been always known as "Mores" or "Moors," and
quite naturally they gave to these new Mohammedan
enemies the same title, and Moros they are called to the
present day.

Summary. — Such, then, are the elements which form
the population of these islands, — a few thousands of the
little Negritos; many wild mountain tribes of the primi-
tive Malayans; a later immigration of Malayans of higher
cultivation and possibilities than any that preceded them,
who had been influenced by the Hinduism of Java and
who have had in recent centuries an astonishing growth
both in numbers and in culture; and last, the fierce
Mohanamedan sea-rovers, the true Malays.

CHAPTER III.
EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D.

The Mediaeval Period in Europe. — Length of the
Middle Age. — By the Middle Ages we mean the cen-
turies between 500 and 1300 a.u. This period begins with
the fall of the Roman Empire and the looting of the
Imperial City by the rude German tribes, and ends with
the rise of a new literature, a new way of looking at the
world in general, and a passion for discovery of every
kind.

These eight hundred years had been centuries of cruel
struggle, intellectual darkness, and social depression, but
also of great religious devotion. Edward Gibbon, one of
the greatest historians, speaks of this period as " the
triimiph of barbarism and religion."

The population of Europe was largely changed, during
the first few centuries of the Christian Era, as the Roman
Empire, that greatest political institution of all history,
slowly decayed. New peoples of German or Teutonic
origin came, fighting their way into western Europe and
settling wherever the land attracted them. Thus Spain
and Italy received the Goths; France, the Burgundians
and Franks; England, the Saxons and Angles or English.

These peoples were all fierce, warlike, free, unlettered
barbarians. Fortunately, they were all converted to
Christianity by Roman priests and missionaries. They
embraced this faith with ardor, at the same time that
other peoples and lands were being lost to Christendom.
Thus it has resulted that the countries where Christianity

42

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT UOO A.D. 43

arose and first established itself, are now no longer Chris-
tian, and this religion, which had an Asiatic and Semitic
origin, has become the distinguishing faith of the people
of western Europe. For centuries the countries of Europe
were fiercely raided and disturbed by pillaging and mur-
dering hordes; by the Huns, who followed in the Germans
from the East ; by the Northmen, cruel pirating seamen
from Scandinavia; and, as we have already seen, by the
Mohammedans, or Saracens as they were called, who
came into central Europe by way of Spain.

Character of the Life during this Period. — Feudalism.
— Life was so beset with peril that independence or free-
dom became impossible, and there was developed a so-
ciety which has lasted almost down to the present time,
and which we call Feudalism. The free but weak man
gave up his freedom and his lands to some stronger man,
who became his lord. He swore obedience to this lord,
while the lord engaged to furnish him protection and gave
him back his lands to hold as a "fief," both sharing in
the product. This lord swore allegiance to some still
more powerful man, or "overlord," and became his "vas-
sal," pledged to follow him to war with a certain number
of armed men; and this overlord, on his part, owed allegi-
ance to the prince, who was, perhaps, a duke or bishop
(bishops at this time were also feudal lords), or to the king
or emperor. Thus were men united into large groups or
nations for help or protection. There was little under-
standing of love of country. Patriotism, as we feel it,
was replaced by the passion of fidelity or allegiance to
one's feudal superior.

Disadvantages of Feudalism. — The great curse of this
system was that the feudal lords possessed the power to
make war upon one another, and so continuous were

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT UOO A.D. 45

their jealousies and quarrelings that the land was never
free from armed bands, who laid waste an opponent's coun-
try, killing the miserable serfs who tilled the soil, and de-
stroying their homes and cattle.

There was little joy in life and no popular learning.
If a man did not enjoy warfare, but one other life was
open to him, and that was in the Church. War and
religion were the pursuits of life, and it is no wonder
that many of the noblest and best turned their backs
upon a life that promised only fighting and bloodshed
and, renouncing the world, became monks. Monasticism
developed in Europe under such conditions as these, and
so strong were the religious feelings of the age that at one
time a third of the land of France was owned by the re-
ligious orders.

The Town. — The two typical institutions of the early
Middle Age were the feudal castle, with its high stone
walls and gloomy towers, with its fierce bands of warriors
armed in mail and fighting on horseback with lance and
sword, and the monastery, which represented inn, hospi-
tal, and school. Gradually, however, a third structure
appeared. This was the town. And it is to these mediae-
val cities, with their busy trading life, their free citizen-
ship, and their useful occupations, that the modern world
owes much of its liberty and its intellectual light.

The Renaissance. — Changes in Political Affairs: —
By 1400, however, the Middle Age had nearly passed and
a new life had appeared, a new epoch was in progress,
which is called the Renaissance, which means " rebirth."
In poHtical affairs the spirit of nationality had arisen, and
feudalism was already declining. Men began to feel attach-
ment to country, to king, and to fellow-citizens; and the
national states, as we now know them, each with its

46 THE PHILIPPINES.

naturally bounded territory, its common language, and its
approximately common race, were appearing.

France and England were, of these states, the two
most advanced politically just previous to the fifteenth
century. At this distant time they were still engaged in
a struggle which lasted quite a century and is known as
the Hmidred Years' War. In the end, England was forced
to give up all her claims to territory on the continent, and
the power of France was correspondingly increased. In
France the monarchy (king and court) was becoming the
supreme power in the land. The feudal nobles lost what
power they had, while the common people gained nothing.
In England, however, the fotmdations for a representa-
tive government had been laid. The powers of legislation
and government were divided between the English king
and a Parliament. The Parliament was first called in
1265 and consisted of two parts, — the Lords, represent-
ing the nobility; and' the Commons, composed of persons
chosen by the common people.

Germany was divided into a mmiber of small princi-
palities, — Saxony, Bavaria, Franconia, Bohemia, Austria,
the Rhine principalities, and many others, — which united
in a great assembly, or Diet, the head of which was
some prince, chosen to be emperor.

Italy was also divided. In the north, in the valley of the
Po, or Lombardy, were the duchy of Milan and the Repub-
lic of Venice ; south, on the western coast, were the Tuscan
states, including the splendid city of Florence. Thence,
stretching north and south across the peninsula, were
states of the church, whose ruler was the pope, for until less
than fifty years ago the pope was not only the head of the
church but also a temporal ruler. Embracing the south-
ern part of the peninsula was the principality of Naples.

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT I4OO A.D. 47

In the Spanish peninsula Christian states had arisen,
— in the west, Portugal, in the center and east, Castile,
Aragon, and Leon, from all of which the Mohammedans
had been expelled. But they still held the southern parts
of Spain, including the beautiful plain of Andalusia and
Grenada.

The Mohammedans, in the centuries 'of their life in
Spain, had developed an elegant and prosperous civiliza-
tion. By means of irrigation and skillful planting, they
had converted southern Spain into a garden. They were
the most skillful agriculturists and breeders of horses and
sheep in Europe, and they carried to perfection many fine
arts, while knowledge and learning were nowhere further
advanced than here. Through contact with this remark-
able people the Christian Spaniards gained much. Un-
fortunately, however, the spirit of religious intolerance was
so strong, and the hatred engendered by the centuries of
religious war was so violent, that in the end the Spaniard
became imbued with so fierce a fanaticism that he has
ever since appeared unable properly to appreciate or justly
to treat any who differed from him in religious belief.

The Conquests of the Mohammedans. — In the fif-
teenth century, religious toleration was but little known
in the world, and the people of the great Mohammedan
faith still threatened to overwhelm Christian Europe.
Since the first great conquests of Islam in the eighth cen-
tury had been repulsed from central Europe, that faith had
shown a wonderful power of winning its way. In the
tenth century Asia Minor was invaded by hordes of Sel-
juks, or Turks, who poured down from central Asia in
conquering bands. These tribes had overthrown the
Arab's power in Mesopotamia and Asia Minor only to
become converts to his faith. With freshened zeal they

48 THE PHILIPPINES.

hurled themselves upon the old Christian empire, which
at Constantinople had survived the fall of the rest of the
Roman world.

The Crusades. — The Seljuk Turks had conquered most
of Asia Minor, Syria, and the Holy Land. A great fear
came over the people of Europe that the city of Constan-
tinople would be captured and they, too, be overwhelmed
by these new Mohammedan enemies. The passionate
religious zeal of the Middle Age also roused the princes
and knights of Europe to try to wrest from the infidel the
Holy Land of Palestine, where were the birthplace of Chris-
tianity and the site of the Sepulcher of Christ. Palestine
was recovered and Christian states were established there,
which lasted for over a hundred and eighty years. Then
the Arab power revived and, operating from Egypt, finally
retook Jerusalem and expelled the Christian from the
Holy Land, to which he has never yet returned as a con-
queror.

Effects of the Crusades. — These long, holy wars, or
"Crusades," had a profound effect upon Europe. The
rude Christian warrior from the west was astonished and
delighted with the splendid and luxurious life which he
met at Constantinople and the Arabian East. Even though
he was a prince, his life at home was barren of comforts
and beauty. Glass, linen, rugs, tapestries, silk, cotton,
spices, and sugar were some of the things which the
Franks and the Englishmen took home with them from
the Holy Land. IDemand for these treasures of the East
became irresistible, and trade between western Europe
and the East grew rapidly.

The Commercial Cities of Italy. — The cities of Italy de-
veloped this commerce. They placed fleets upon the Medi-
terranean. They carried the crusaders out and brought

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D. 49

back the wares that Europe desired. In this way these
cities grew and became very wealthy. On the west coast,
where this trade began, were Xmalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and
Florence, and on the east, at the head of the Adriatic, was
Venice. The rivalry between these cities of Italy was
very fierce. They fought and plundered one another, each
striving to win a monopoly for itself of this invaluable
trade.

Venice, finally, was victorious. Her location was very
favorable. From her docks the wares could be carried
easily and by the shortest routes up the Po River and
thence into France or northward over the Alps to the
Danube. In Bavaria grew up in this trade the splendid
German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, which passed
these goods on to the cities of the Rhine, and so down
this most beautiful river to the coast. Here the towns of
Flanders and of the Low Countries, or Holland, received
them and passed them on again to England and eastward
to the countries- of the Baltic.

Development of Modern Language. — Thus commerce
and trade grew up in Europe, and, with trade and city
life, greater intelligence, learning, and independence.
Education became more common, and the universities of
Europe were thronged. Latin in the Middle Age had been
the only language that was written by the learned class.
Now the modem languages of Europe took their form and
began to be used for literary purposes. Italian was the
first to be so used by the great Dante, and in the same
half-century the English poet Chaucer sang in the homely
English tongue, and soon in France, Germany, and Spain
national literatures appeared. With this went greater free-
dom of expression. Authority began to have less weight.

Men began to inquire into causes and effects, to doubt

i\o !'■*«-,

J^ >jf(s-*-ir^ 1

60

EUROPS AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT UOO A.IX 51

certain things, to seek themselves for the truth, and so
the Renaissance came. With it came a greater love for
the beautiful, a greater joy in life, a fresh zest for the
good of this world, a new passion for discovery, a thirst
for adventure, and, it must also be confessed a new laxity
of living and a new -greed for gold. Christian Europe was
about to burst its narrow bounds. It could not be re-
pressed nor confined to its old limitations. It could never
turn backward. Of all the great changes which have come
over life and thought, probably none are greater than
those which saw the transition from the mediaeval to the
modern world.

Trade with the East. — Articles of Trade. — Now we
must go back for a moment and pursue an old inquiry
further. Whence came all these beautiful and inviting
wares that had produced new tastes and passions in
Europe? The Italian traders drew them from the Levant,
but the Levant had not produced them. Neither pepper,
spices, sugarcane, costly gems, nor rich silks, were pro-
duced on the shores of the Mediterranean.

Only the rich tropical countries of the East were capable
of growing these rare plants, and up to that time of
delivering to the delver many precious stones. India,
the rich Malaysian archipelago, the kingdom of China, —
these are the lands and islands which from time imme-
morial have given up their treasures to be forwarded far
and wide to amaze and delight the native of colder and
less productive lands.

Routes of Trade to the Far East. — Three old sail-
ing and caravan routes connect the Mediterranean with
the Far East. They are so old that we can not guess
when men first used them. They were old in the days of
Solomon and indeed very ancient when Alexander the

62 THE PBILIPPINES.

Great conquered the East. One of these routes passed
through the Black Sea, and across the Caspian Sea to
Turkestan to those strange and romantic ancient cities,
Bokhara and Samarkand. I'hence it ran northeasterly
across Asia, entering China from the north. Another
crossed Syria and went down through Mesopotamia to the
Indian Ocean. A third began in Egypt and went through
the Red Sea, passing along the coast of Arabia to India.

All of these had been in use for centuries, but by the
year 1400 two had been closed. A fresh immigration of
Turks, the Ottomans, in the fourteenth century came
down upon the scourged country of the Euphrates and
Syria, and although these Turks also embraced Moham-
medanism, their hostility closed the first two routes and
commerce over them has never since been resumed.

Venetian Monopoly of Trade. — Thus all interest
centered upon the southern route. By treaty with the
sultan or ruler of Egypt, Venice secured a monopoly of
the products which came over this route. Goods from
the East now came in fleets up the Red Sea, went through
the hands of the sultan of Egypt, who collected a duty
for them, and then were passed on to the ships of the
wealthy Venetian merchant princes, who carried them
throughout Europe. Although the object of intense jeal-
ousy, it seemed impossible to wrest this monopoly from
Venice. Her fleet was the strongest on the Mediterranean,
and her rule extended along the Adriatic to the Grecian
islands. All eager minds were bent upon the trade with
the East, but no way was known, save that which now
Venice had gained.

Extent of Geographical Knowledge. — The Maps of
this Period. — To realize how the problem looked to the
sailor of Genoa or the merchant of Flanders at that time,

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT UOO A.D. 53

we must understand how scanty and erroneous was the
geographical knowledge of even the fifteenth century. It
was believed that Jerusalem was the center of the world,
a belief founded upon a biblical passage. The maps of
this and earlier dates represent the earth in this way:
In the center, Palestine, and beneath it the Mediterranean
Sea, the only body of water which was well known; on
the left side is Europe; on the right, Africa; and at the
top, Asia — the last- two continents very indefinitely
mapped. Around the whole was supposed to flow an
ocean, beyond the first few miles of which it was perilous
to proceed lest the ship be carried over the edge of the
earth or encounter other perils.

Ideas about the Earth. -^ The Greek philosophers be-
fore the time of Christ had discovered that the world is a
globe, or ball, and had even computed rudely its circum-
ference. But in the Middle Ages this knowledge had
been disputed and contradicted by a geographer named
Cosmas, who held that the world was a vast plane, twice
as long as it was broad and surrounded by an ocean. This
belief was generally adopted by churchmen, who were the
only scholars of the Middle Ages, and came to be the uni-
versal belief of Christian Europe.

The Renaissance revived the knowledge of the writ-
ings of the old Greek geographers who had demonstrated
the earth's shape to be roimd and had roughly calculated
its size; but these writings did not have sufficient circula-
tion in Europe to gain much acceptance among the Chris-
tian cosmographers. The Arabs, however, after conquer-
ing Egypt, Syria and northern Africa, translated into
their own tongue the wisdom of the Greeks and became
the best informed and most scientific geographers of the
Middle Age, so that intercourse with the Arabs which

54 THE PHILIPPINES.

began with the Crusades helped to acquaint Europe some-
what with India and China.

The Far East. — The Tartar Mongols. — Then in the
thirteenth century all northern Asia and China fell under
the power of the Tartar Mongols. Russia was overrun by
them and western Europe threatened. At the Danube,
however, this tide of Asiatic conquest stopped, and then
a- long period when Europe came into diplomatic and
commercial relations with these Mongols and through them
learned something of China.

Marco Polo Visits the Or eat Kaan. — Several Eu-
ropeans visited the court of the Great Kaan, or Mongol
king, and of one of them, Marco Polo, we must speak n
particular. He was a Venetian, and when a young man
started in 1271 with his father and uncle on a visit to
the Great Kaan. They passed from Italy to Syria, across
to Bagdad, and so up to Turkestan, where they saw the
wonderful cities of this strange oasis, thence across the
Pamirs and the Desert of Gobi to Lake Baikal, where the
Kaan had his court. Here in the service of this prince
Marco Polo spent over seventeen years. So valuable in-
deed were his services that the Kaan would not permit
him to return. Year after year he remained in the East.
He traversed most of China, and was for a time " taotai,"
or magistrate, of the city of Yang Chan near the Yangtze
River. He saw the amazing wonders of the East. He
heard of " Zipangu," or Japan. He probably heard of
the Philippines.

Finally the opportunity came for the three Venetians
to return. The Great Kaan had a relative who was a
ruler of Persia, and ambassadors came from this ruler to
secure a Mongol princess for him to marry. The dangers
and hardships of the travel overland were considered too

EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT I4OO A.D. 55

difficult for the delicate princess, and it was decided to
send her by water. Marco Polo and his father and uncle
were commissioned to accompany the expedition to
Persia.

History of Marco Polo's Travels. — They sailed from
the port of Chin Cheu, probably near Amoy,^ in the year
1292. They skirted the coasts of Cambodia and Siam
and reached the eastern coasts of Sumatra, where they
waited five months for the changing of the monsoon.
Of the Malay people of Sumatra, as well as of these
islands, their animals and productions, Marco Polo has
left us most interesting and quite accurate accounts. The
Malays on Sumatra were beginning to be converted to
Mohammedanism, for Marco Polo says that many of
them were "Saracens." He gained a good knowledge of
the rich and mysterious Indian Isles, where the spices
and flavorings grew. It was two years before the party,
having crossed the Indian Ocean, reached Persia and
the court of the Persian king. When they arrived they
found that while they were making this long voyage the
Persian king had died ; but they married the Mongol
princess to his son, the young prince, who had succeeded
him, and that did just as well.

From Persia the Venetians crossed to Syria and thence
sailed to Italy, and at last reached home after an ab-
sence of twenty-six years. But Marco Polo's adventures
did not end with his return to Venice. In a fierce sea
fight between the Venetians and Genoese, he was made

1 See Yule's Marco Polo for a discussion of this point and for the
entire history of this great explorer, as well as a translation of his
narrative. This book of Ser Marco Polo has been most critically edited
with introduction and voluminous notes by the English scholar, Sir
Henry Yule. In this edition the accounts of Marco Polo, covering so
many countries and peoples of the Far East, can be studied.

66 TSE PBIL1FPINE8.

a prisoner and confined in Genoa. Here a fellow captive
wrote down from Marco's own words the story of his
eastern adventures, and this book we have to-day. It is
a record of adventure, travel, and description, so wonder-
ful that for years it was doubted and its accuracy
disbelieved. But since, in our own time, men have been
able to traverse again the routes over which Marco Polo
passed, fact after fact has been established, quite as he
truthfully stated them centuries ago. To have been the
first European to make this mighty circuit of travel is
certainly a strong title to enduring fame.

Countries of the Far East. — India. — Let us now
briefly look at the countries of the Far East, which by
the year 1400 had come to exercise over the mind of
the European so irresistible a fascination. First of all,
India, as we have seen, had for centuries been the prin-
cipal source of the western commerce. But long before
the date we are considering, the scepter of India had
fallen from the hand of the Hindu. From the seventh
century, India was a prey to Mohammedan conquerors,
who entered from the northwest into the valley of the
Indus. At first these were Saracens or Arabs; later
they were the same Mongol converts to Mohammedanism,
whose attacks upon Europe we have already noticed.

In 1398 came the furious and bloody warrior, the
greatest of all Mongols, — Timour, or Tamerlane. He
founded, with capital at Delhi, the empire of the Great
Mogul, whose ryle over India was only broken by the
white man. Eastward across the Ganges and in the
Dekkan, or southern part of India, were states ruled over
by Indian princes.

China. — We have seen how, at the time of Marco
Polo, China also was ruled by the Tartar Mongols. The

EtiROfB AND THE PAR BAST ABOUT UOO A.B. 67

Chinese have ever been subject to attack from the wan-
dering horse-riding tribes of Siberia. Two hundred years
before Christ one of the Chinese Itings built the Great
Wall that stretches across the northern frontier for one
thousand three hundred miles, for a defense against north-
ern foes. Through much of her history the Chinese
have been ruled by aliens, as they are to-day. About
1368, however, the Chinese overthrew the Mongol rulers
and established the Ming dynasty, the last Chinese house
of emperors, who ruled China until 1644, wRen the Man-
chus, the present rulers, conquered the country.

China was great and prosperous under the Mings. Com-
merce flourished and the fleets of Chinese junks sailed to
India, the Malay Islands, and to the Philippines for trade.
The Grand Canal, which connects Peking with the Yangtze
River basin and Hangchau, was completed. It was an
age of fine productions of literature.

The Chinese seem to have been much less exclusive
then than they are at the present time; much less a
peculiar, isolated people than now. They did not then
shave their heads nor wear a queue. These customs, as
well as that hostility to foreign intercourse which they
have to-day, has been forced upon China by the Manchus.
China appeared at that time ready to assume a position
of enormous influence among the peoples of the earth, —
a position for which she was wefl fitted by the great
industry of all classes and the high intellectual power of
her learned men.

Japan. — Compared with China or India, or even some
minor states, the development of Japan at this time was
very backward. Her people were divided and there was
constant civil war. The Japanese borrowed their civiliza-
tion from the Chinese. From them they learned writing

EVROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT UOO A.B. 59

and literature, and the Buddhist religion, which was in-
troduced about 550 a.d. But in temperament they are
a very different people, being spirited, warlike, and, until
recent years, despising trading and commerce.

Since the beginning of her history, Japan has been an
empire. The ruler, the Mikado, is believed to be of
heavenly descent; but in the centuries we are discussing
the government was controlled by powerful nobles, known
as the Shogun, who kept the emperors in retirement in
the palaces of Kyoto, and themselves directed the State.
The greatest of these shoguns was lyeyasu, who ruled
Japan about 1600, soon after Manila was founded. They
developed in Japan a species of feudalism, the great lords,
or "daimios," owning allegiance to the shoguns, and about
the daimios, as feudal retainers, bodies of samurai, who
formed a partly noble class of their own. The samurai
carried arms, fought at their lords' command, were stu-
dents and literati, and among them developed that proud,
loyal, and elevated code of morality known as " Biishido,"
which has done so much for the Japanese people. It is
this samurai class who in modern times have effected the
immense revolution in the condition and power of Japan.

The Malay Archipelego ■ — If now we look at the Ma-
lay Islands, we find, as we have already seen, that changes
had been effected there. Hinduism had first elevated and
civilized at least a portion of the race, and Mohamme-
danism and the daring seamanship of the Malay had
united these islands under a common language and reli-
gion. There was, however, no political union. The Malay
peninsula was divided. Java formed a central Malay power.
Eastward among the beautiful Celebes and Moluccas, the
true Spice Islands, were a multitude of small native rulers,
rajas or datos, who surrounded themselves with retain-

60 THE PHILIPPINES.

ers, kept rude courts, and gathered wealthy tributes of
ciimamon, pepper, and cloves. The sultans of Ternate,
Tidor, and Amboina were especially powerful, and the
islands they ruled the most rich and productive.

Between all these islands there was a busy commerce.
The Malay is an intrepid sailor, and an eager trader.
Fleets of praos, laden with goods, passed with the chang-
ing monsoons from part to part, risking the perils of piracy,
which have always troubled this archipelago. Borneo,
while the largest of all these islands, was the least devel-
oped, and down to the present day has been hardly ex-
plored. The Philippines were also outside of most of this
busy intercourse and had at that date few products to
offer for trade. Their only connection with the rest of the
Malay race was through the Mohammedan Malays of Jolo
and Borneo. The fame of the Spice Islands had long filled
Europe, but the existence of the Philippines was unknown.

Summary. — We have now reviewed the condition of
Europe and of farther Asia as they were before the period
of modern discovery and colonization opened. The East
had reached a condition of quiet stability. Mohamme-
danism, though still spreading, did not promise to effect
great social changes. The institutions of the East had
become fixed in custom and her peoples neither made
changes nor desired them. On the other hand western
Europe had become aroused to an excess of ambition.
New ideas, new discoveries and inventions were moving
the nations to activity and change. That era of modern
discovery and progress, of which we cannot yet perceive
the end, had begun.

CHAPTER IV.

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.

An Eastern Passage to India. — The Portuguese. — 'We
have seen in the last chapter how Venice held a monopoly
of the only trading-route with the Far East. Some new
way of reaching India must be sought, that would permit
the traders of other Christian powers to reach the marts of
the Orient without passing through Mohammedan lands.
This surpassing achievement was accomplished by the
Portuguese. So low at the present day has the power of
Portugal fallen that few realize the daring and courage
once displayed by her seamen and soldiers ajid the enor-
mous colonial empire that she established.

Portugal freed her territory of the Mohammedan Moors
nearly a century earlier than Spain; and the vigor and
intelhgence of a great king, John I., brought Portugal,
about the year 1400, to an important place among the
states of Europe. This king captured from the Moors the
city of Ceuta, in Morocco; and this was the beginning of
modern European colonial possessions, and the first bit
of land outside of Europe to be held by a European
power since the times of the Crusades. King John's
youngest son was Prince Henry, famous in history under
the title of "the Navigator." This young prince, with
something of the same adventurous spirit that filled the
Crusaders, was ardent to extend the power of his father's
kingdom and to widen the sway of the religion which he
devotedly professed. The power of the Mohammedans in
the Mediterranean was too great for him hopefully to
oppose and so he planned the conquest of the west coast

61

62 THE PHILIPPINES.

of Africa, and its conversion to Christianity. With these
ends in view, he established at Point Sagres, on the south-
western coast of Portugal, a naval academy and obser-
vatory. Here he brought together skilled navigators,
charts, and geographies, and all scientific knowledge that
would assist in his undertaking.^

He began to construct ships larger and better than
any in use. To us they would doubtless seem very clumsy
and small, but this was the beginning of ocean ship-build-
ing. The compass and the astrolabe, or sextant, the little
instrument with which, by calculating the height of the
sun above the horizon, we can tell distance from the equa-
tor, were just coming into use. These, as well as every
other practicable device for navigation known at that
time, were supplied to these ships.

Exploration of the African Coast. — Thus equipped
and ably manned, the little fleets began the exploration of
the African coast, cautiously feeling their way southward
and ever' returning with reports of progress made. Year
after year this work went on. In 1419 the Madeira
Islands were rediscovered and colonized by Portuguese
settlers. The growing of sugarcane was begun, and vines
were brought from Burgundy and planted there. The

' See the noted work The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, sumamed
the Navigator, and its Results, by Richard Henry Major, London, 1868.
Many of the views of Mr. Major upon the importance of Prince Henry's
work and especially its early aims, have been contradicted in more re-
cent writings. The importance of the Sagres Observatory is belittled.
Doubts are expressed as to the farsightedness of Prince Henry's plans,
and the best opinion of to-day holds that he did not hope to discover
a new route to India by way of Africa, but sought simply the conquest
of the " Guinea," which was known to the Europeans through the Arab
Geographers, who called it "Bilad Ghana" or "Land of Wealth."
The students, if possible, should read the essay of Mr. E. J. Payne,
The Age of Discovery, in the Cambridge Modem History, Vol I.

TRE GREAT GEOGRAPUIGAL DISCOVERIES. 63

wine of the Madeiras has been famous to this day.
Then were discovered the Canaries and in 1444 the Azores.
The southward exploration of the coast of the mainland
steadily continued until in 1445 the Portuguese reached
the mouth of the Senegal River. Up to this point the Afri-
can shore had not yielded much of interest to the Portu-
guese explorer or trader. Below Morocco the great Sahara
Desert reaches to the sea and renders barren the coast
for hxmdreds of miles.

South of the mouth of the Senegal and comprising
the whole Guinea coast, Africa is tropical, well watered,
and populous. This is the home of the true African
Negro. Here, for almost the first time, since the be-
ginning of the Middle Ages, Christian Europe came in
contact with a race of ruder culture and different color
than its own. This coast was foimd to be worth exploit-
ing; for it yielded, besides various desirable resinous gums,
three articles which have distinguished the exploitation of
Africa, namely, gold, ivory, and slaves.

Beginning of Negro Slavery in Europe. — At this point
begins the horrible and revolting story of European Negro
slavery. The ancient world had practiced this owner-
ship of human chattels, and the Roman Empire had de-
clined under a burden of half the population sunk in
bondage. To the enormous detriment and suffering of
mankind, Mohammed had tolerated the institution, and
slavery is permitted by the Koran. But it is the glory of
the mediaeval church that it abolished human slavery
from Christian Europe. However dreary and unjust feu-
dalism may have been, it knew nothing of that institution
which degrades men and women to the level of cattle and
remorselessly sells the husband from his family, the mother
from her child.

64 THE PHILIPPINES.

Slaves in Portugal. — The arrival of the Portuguese
upon the coast of Guinea now revived not the bondage of
one white man to another, but that of the black to the
white. The first slaves carried to Portugal were regarded
simply as objects of peculiar interest, captives to repre-
sent to the court the population of those shores whifch had
been added to the Portuguese dominion. But southern
Portugal, from which the Moors had been expelled, had
suffered from a lack of laborers, and it was found profit-
able to introduce Negroes to work these fields.

Arguments to Justify Slavery. — So arose the insti-
tution of Negro slavery, which a century later upon the
shores of the New World was to develop into so tremen-
dous and terrible a thing. Curiously enough, religion was
evoked to justify this enslavement of the Africans. The
Church taught that these people, being heathen, were
fortunate to be captured by Christians, that they might
thereby be brought to baptism and conversion; for it is
better for the body to perish than for the soul to be cast
into hell. At a later age, when the falsity of this teach-
ing had been realized, men still sought to justify the
institution by arguing that the Almighty had created'
the African of a lower state especially that he might serve
the superior race.

The coast of Guinea continued to be the resort of slavers
down to the middle of the last century, and such scenes
of cruelty, wickedness, and debauchery have occurred along
its shores as can scarcely be paralleled in brutality in the
history of any people.

The Portuguese can hardly be said to have colonized
the coast in the sense of raising up there a Portuguese
population. As he approached the equator the white man
found that, in spite of his superior strength, he could not

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 65

permanently people the tropics. Diseases new to his
experience attacked him. His energy declined. If he
brought his family with him, his children were few or
feeble and shortly his race had died out.

The settlements of the Portuguese were largely for the
purposes of trade. At Sierra Leone, Kamerun, or Loango,
they built forts and established garrisons, mounting pieces
of artillery that gave them advantage over the attacks of
the natives, and erecting warehouses and the loathsome
"barracoon," where the slaves were confined to await
shipment. Such decadent little settlements still linger
along the African coast, although the slave-trade happily
has ended.

The Successful Voyage of Vasco da Gama. — Through-
out the century Prince Henry's policy of exploration was
continued. Slowly the middle coast of Africa became
known. At last in 1486, Bartholomew Diaz rounded the
extremity of the continent. He named it the Cape of
Storms; but the Portuguese king, with more prophetic
sight, renamed it the Cape of Good Hope. It was ten
years, however, before the Portuguese could send another
expedition. Then Vasco da Gama rounded the cape
again, followed up the eastern coast until the Arab trad-
ing-stations were reached. Then he struck across the sea,
landed at the Malabar coast of India, and in 1498 arrived
at Calcutta. The end dreamed of by all of Europe had
been achieved. A sea-route to the Far East had been
discovered.

Results of Da Gama's Voyage. — The importance of
this performance was instantly recognized in Europe.
Venice was ruined. " It was a terrible day," said a con-
temporary writer, " when the word reached Venice. Bells
were rung, men wept in the streets, and even the bravest

66 THE PHILIPPINES.

were silent." The Arabs and the native rulers made a
desperate effort to expel the Portuguese from the Indian
Ocean, but their opponents were too powerful. In the
course of twenty years Portugal had founded an empire
that had its forts and trading-marts from the coast of
Arabia to Malaysia. Zanzibar, Aden, Oman, Goa, Calicut,
and Madras were all Portuguese stations, fortified and se-
cured. In the Malay peninsula was foimded the colony of
Malacca. It retained its importance and power until in
the last century, when it dwindled before the competition
of Singapore.

The work of building up this great domain was largely
that of one man, the intrepid Albuquerque. Think what
his task was! He was thousands of miles from home and
supplies, he had only such forces and munitions as he
could bring with him in his little ships, and opposed to
him were millions of inhabitants and a multitude of Mo-
hammedan princes. Yet this great captain built up an
Indian empire. Portugal at one bound became the great-
est trading and colonizing power in the world. Her sources
of wealth appeared fabulous, and, like Venice, she made
every effort to secure her monopoly. The fleets of other
nations were warned that they could not make use of the
Cape of Good Hope route, on penalty of being captured
or destroyed.

Reaching India by Sailing West. — The Earth as a
Sphere. — Meanwhile, just as Portugal was carrying to
completion her project of reaching India by sailing east,
Europe was electrified by the supposed successful attempt
of reaching India by sailing directly west, across the At-
lantic. This was the plan daringly attempted in 1492 by
Christopher Columbus. Columbus was an Italian sailor
and cosmographer of Genoa. The idea of sailing west to

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 67

India did not originate with him, but his is the immortal
glory of having persistently sought the means and put the
idea into execution.

The Portuguese discoveries along the African coast
gradually revealed the extension of this continent and
the presence of people beyond the equator, and the pos-
sibility of passing safely through the tropics. This knowl-
edge was a great stimulus to the peoples of Europe.
The geographical theory of the Greeks, that the world is
round, was revived. The geographers, however, in mak-
ing their calculations of the earth's circumference, had
fallen into an error of some thousands of miles; that is,
instead of finding that it is fully twelve thousand miles
from Europe around to the East Indies, they had sup-
posed it about four thousand, or even less. Marco Polo
too had exaggerated the distance he had traveled and
from his accounts men had been led to believe that China,
Japan, and the Spice Islands lie much fm-ther to the east
than they actually do.

By sailing west across one wide ocean, with no interven-
ing lands, it was thought that one could arrive at the
island-world off the continent of Asia. This was the theory
that was revived in Italy and which clung in men's minds
for years and years, even after America was discovered.

All Italian, named Toscanelli, drew a map showing
how this voyage could be made, and sent Columbus a
copy. By sailing first to the Azores, a considerable por-
tion of the journey would be passed, with a convenient
resting-stage. Then about thirty-five days' favorable sail-
ing would bring one to the islands of "Cipango," or
Japan, which Marco Polo had said lay off the continent
of Asia. From here the passage could readily be pur-
sued to Cathay and India.

68 THE PBILIPPINES.

The Voyage of Christopher Columbus. — The roman-
tic and inspiring story of Columbus is told in many books,
— his poverty, his genius, his long and discouraging pur-
suit of the means to carry out his plan. He first applied
to Portugal; but, as we have seen, this country had been
pursuing another plan steadily for a century, and, now
that success appeared almost at hand, naturally the
Portuguese king would not turn aside to favor Colinnbus's
plan.

For years Columbus labored to interest the Spanish
court. A great event had happened in Spanish history.
Ferdinand, king of Aragon, had wedded Isabella of Castile,
and this marriage united these two kingdoms into the
modern country of Spain. Soon the smaller states except
Portugal were added, and the war for the expulsion of the
Moors was prosecuted with new vigor. In 1492, Grenada,
the last splendid stronghold of the Mohammedans in the
peninsula, surrendered, and in the same year Isabella fur-
nished Columbus with the ships for his voyage of dis-
covery.

Columbus sailed from Palos, August 3, 1492, reached the
Canaries August 24, and sailed westward on September
6. Day after day, pushed by the strong winds, called
the "trades,'' they went forward. Many doubts and fears
beset the crews, but Columbus was stout-hearted. At the
end of thirty-four days from the Canaries, on October 12,
they sighted land. It was one of the groups of beautiful
islands lying between the two continents of America. But
Columbus thought that he had reached the East Indies that
really lay many thousands of miles farther west. Colum-
bus sailed among the islands of the archipelago, discov-
ered Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti), and then returned to
convulse Europe with excitement over the new-found way

70 THE PniLIPPINES.

to the East. He had not found the rich Spice Islands, the
peninsula of India, Cathay or Japan, but every one be-
lieved that these must be close to the islands on which
Columbus had landed.

The tall, straight-haired, copper-colored natives, whom
Columbus met on the islands, he naturally called "In-
dians"; and this name they still bear. Afterwards the
islands were called the "West Indies." Columbus made
three more voyages for Spain. On the fourth, in 1498,
he touched on the coast of South America. Here he dis-
covered the great Orinoco River. Because of its large
size, he must have realized that a large body of land
opposed the passage to the Orient. He died in 1506, dis-
appointed at his failure to find India, but never knowing
what he had found, nor that the history of a new hemi-
sphere had begun with him.

The Voyage of the Cabots. — In the same year that
Columbus discovered the Orinoco, Sebastian Cabot, of
Italian parentage, hke Columbus, secured ships from the
king of England, hoping to reach China and Japan by
sailing west on a northern route. What he did discover
was a rugged and uninviting coast, with stormy head-
lands, cold climate, and gloomy forests of pine reaching
down to the sandy shores. For nine hundred miles he
sailed southward, but everywhere this unprofitable coast
closed the passage to China. It was the coast of Labra-
dor and the United States. Yet for years and years it
was not known that a continent three thousand miles
wide and the greatest of all oceans lay between Cathay
and the shore visited by Cabot's ships. This land was
thought to be a long peninsula, an island, or series of
islands, belonging to Asia. No one supposed or could sup-
pose that there was a continent here.

THJil GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 71

Naming the New World. — But in a few years Europe
did realize that a new continent had been discovered in
South America. If_ you will look at your maps, you will
see that South America lies far to the eastward of North
America and in Brazil approaches very close to Africa.
This Brazilian coast was visited by a Portuguese fleet on
the African route in 1499, and two years later an Italian
fleet traversed the coast from the Orinoco to the harbor
of Rio Janeiro. Their voyage was a veritable revelation.
They entered the mighty current of the Amazon, the great-
est river of the earth. They saw the wondrous tropical
forests, full of monkeys, great snakes, and stranger ani-
mals. They dealt and fought with the wild and ferocious
inhabitants, whose ways startled and appalled the Euro-
pean. All that they saw filled them with greatest wonder.
This evidently was not Asia, nor was it the Indies. Here,
in fact, was a new continent, a veritable " Mundus Novus."
The pilot of this expedition was an Italian, named
Amerigo Vespucci. On the return this man wrote a very
interesting letter or little pamphlet, describing this new
world, which was widely read, and brought the writer
fame. A few years later a German cosmographer, in pre-
paring a new edition of Ptolemy's geography, proposed to
give to this new continent the name of the man who had
made known its wonders in Europe. So it was called
"America." Long after, when the northern shores were
■ also proved to be those of a continent, this great land was
named "North America." No injustice was intended to
Columbus when America was so named. It was not then
supposed that Columbus had discovered a continent.
The people then believed that Columbus had found a new
route to India and had discovered some new islands that
lay off the coast of Asia,.

72 THIS PHILIPPINES.

Spain Takes Possession of the New Lands. — Of these
newly found islands and whatever wealth they might be
found to contain, Spain claimed the possession by right
of discovery. And of the European nations, it was Spain
which first began the exploration and colonization of
America. Spain was now free from her long Mohamme-
dan wars, and the nation was being united under Ferdi-
nand and Isabella. The Spaniards were brave, adventurous,
and too proud to engage in commerce or agriculture,
but ready enough to risk life and treasure in quest of riches
abroad. The Spaniards were devotedly religious, and the
Church encouraged conquest, that missionary work might
be extended. So Spain began her career that was soon
to make her the foremost power of Europe and one of the
greatest colonial empires the world has seen. It is amaz-
ing what the Spaniards accomplished in the fifty years
following Columbus's first voyage.

Hispaniola was made the center from which the Span-
iards extended their explorations to the continents of both
North and South America. On these islands of the West
Indies they found a great tribe of Indians, — the Caribs.
They were fierce and cruel. The Spaniards waged a war-
fare of extermination against them, killing many, and en-
slaving others for work in the mines. The Indian proved
unable to exist as a slave. And his sufferings drew the
attention of a Spanish priest, Las Casas, who by vigorous
efforts at the court succeeded in having Indian slavery
abolished and African slavery introduced to take its place.
This remedy was in the end worse than the disease, for it
gave an immense impetus to the African slave-trade and
peopled America with a race of Africans in bondage.

Other Spanish Explorations and Discoveries. — Mean-
while, the Spanish soldier, with incredible energy, courage.

THE ORE AT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 73

and daring, pushed his conquests. In 1513, Florida was
discovered, and in the same year Balboa crossed the nar-
row isthmus of Panama and saw the Pacific Ocean. Con-
trary to what is often supposed, he did not dream of its
vast extent, but supposed it to be a narrow body of water
lying between Panama and the Asian islands. He named
it the "South Sea," a name that survived after its true
character was revealed by Magellan. Then followed the
two most romantic and surprising conquests of colonial
history, — that of Mexico by Cortes in 1521, and of Peru
by Pizarro in 1533-34. These great countries were in-
habited by Indians, the most advanced and cultured on
the American continents. And here the Spaniards found
enormous treasures of gold and silver. Then, the dis-
covery of the mines of Bogota opened the greatest source
of the precious metal that Europe had ever known. Span-
iards flocked to the New World, and in New Spain, as
Mexico was called, was established a great vice-royalty.
Year after year enormous wealth was poured into Spain
from these American possessions.

Emperor Charles F- — Meanwhile great political power
had been added to Spain in Europe. In 1520 the throne
of Spain fell to a young man, Charles, the grandson of
Ferdinand and Isabella. His mother was Juana, the
Spanish princess, and his father was Philip the Hand-
some, of Burgundy. Philip the Handsome was the son of
Maximilian, the Archduke of Austria. Now it curiously
happened that the thrones of each of these three coun-
tries was left without other heirs than Charles, and in
1520 he was King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, and
Duke of Burgundy and the Low Countries, including the
rich commercial cities of Holland and Belgium. In addi-
tion to all this, the German princes elected him German

74 THE PHILIPPINES.

emperor, and although he was King Charles the First of
Spain, he is better known in history as Emperor Charles
the Fifth.^

He was then an untried boy of twenty years, and no
one expected to find in him a man of resolute energy, cold
persistence, and great executive ability. But so it proved,
and this was the man that made of Spain the greatest
power of the time. He was in constant warfare. He
fought four wars with King Francis I. of France, five
wars with the Turks, both in the Danube valley and in
Africa, and an unending succession of contests with the
Protestant princes of Germany. For Charles, besides many
other important changes, saw the rise of Protestantism,
and the revolt of Germany, Switzerland, and England
from Catholicism. The first event in his emperorship
was the assembling of the famous German Diet at Worms,
where was tried and condemned the real fomider of the
Protestant religion, Martin Luther.

The Voyage of Hernando Magellan. — In the mean time
a way had at last been found to reach the Orient from
Europe by sailing west. This discovery, the greatest voy-
age ever made by man, was accomplished, in 1521, by the
fleet of Hernando Magellan. Magellan was a Portuguese,
who had been- in the East with Albuquerque. He had
fought with the Malays in Malacca, and had helped to
establish the Portuguese power in India.

On his return to Portugal, the injustice of the court
drove him from his native country, and he entered the
service of Spain. Charles the Fifth commissioned him
to attempt a voyage of discovery down the coast of South

' The classical work on this famous ruler is Robertson's Life of
.Charles the Fifth, but the student should consult if possible more
recent -works.

THE GREAT GEOGliAPHIGAL BIHCOVERIES. 75

America, with the hope of finding a passage to the East.
This was Magellan's great hope and faith, — that south
of the new continent of America must lie a passage west-
ward, by which ships could sail to China. As long as
Portugal was able to keep closed the African route to all
other ships than her own, the discovery of some other
way was imperative.

On the 20th of September, 1519, Magellan's fleet of five
ships set sail from Seville, which was the great Spanish
shipping-port for the dispatch of the colonial fleets. On
December 13 they reached the coast of Brazil and then
coasted southward. They traded with the natives, and
at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata stayed some days
to fish.

The weather grew rapidly colder and more stormy as
they went farther south, and Magellan decided to stop and
winter in the Bay of San Julian. Here the cold of the
winter, the storms, and the lack of food caused a con-
spiracy among his captains to mutiny and return to Spain.
Magellan acted with swift and terrible energy. He went
himself on board one of the mutinous vessels, kifled the
chief conspirator with his own hand, executed another,
and then "marooned," or left to their fate on the shore,
a friar and one other, who were leaders in the plot.

The Straits of Magellan. — The fleet sailed south-
ward again in August but it was not until November 1,
1520, that Magellan entered the long and stormy straits
that bear ' his name and which connect the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans. South of them were great bleak
islands, cold and desolate. They were inhabited by In-
dians, who are probably the lowest and most wretched
savages on the earth. They live on fish and mussels. As
they go at all times naked, they carry with them in their

76 TUB PmLIPPINES.

boats brands and coals of fire. Seeing the numerous lights
on the shore, Magellan named these islands Tierra del
Fuego (the Land of Fire). For twenty days the ships
struggled with the contrary and shifting winds that pre-
vail in this channel, during which time one ship deserted
and returned to Spain. Then the remaining four ships
passed out onto the boundless waters of the Pacific.

Westward on the Pacific Ocean. — But we must not
make the mistake of supposing that Magellan and his fol-
lowers imagined that a great ocean confronted them.
They expected that simply sailing northward to the lati-
tude of the Spice Islands would bring them to these de-
sired places. This they did, and then turned westward,
expecting each day to find the Indies; but no land ap-
peared. The days lengthened into weeks, the weeks into
months, and still they went forward, carried by the trade
winds over a sea so smooth and free from tempests that
Magellan named it the "Pacific."

But they suffered horribly from lack of food, even
eating in their starvation the leather slings on the masts.
It was a terrible trial of their courage. Twenty of their
mmiber died. The South Pacific is studded with islands,
but curiously their route lay just too far north to behold
them. From November 28, when they emerged from the
Straits of Magellan, until March 7, when they reached
the Ladrones, they encountered only two islands, and these
were small uninhabited rocks, without water or food, which
in their bitter disappointment they named las Desven-
turadas (the Unfortunate Islands).

The, Liulroii.f. Islands. — Their relief must have been
inexpressible when, on coming up to land on March the
7th, they found inhabitants and food, yams, cocoanuts,
and rice. At these islands the Spaniards first saw the

^^

/J, + + + • • • • .■^j^.i -■- -%'-t^^x

ff

Ar

78 THE PHILIPPINES.

prao, with its light outrigger, and pointed sail. So
numerous were these craft that they named the group
las Islas de las Velas (the Islands of Sails) ; but the loss
of a ship's boat and other annoying thefts led the sailors
to designate the islands Los Ladrones (the Thieves), a
name which they still retain.

The Philippine Islands. — Samar. — Leaving the La-
drones Magellan sailed on westward looking for the Moluc-
cas, and the first land that he sighted was the eastern
coast of Samar. Pigafetta says : ' ' Saturday, the 16th of
March, we sighted an island which has very lofty moun-
tains. Soon after we learned that it was Zamal, distant
three himdred leagues from the islands of the Ladrones." '

JSomonhon. — On the following day the sea-worn ex-
pedition, landed on a little uninhabited island south of
Samar which Pigafetta called Humimu, and which is
still known as Homonhon or Jomonjol.

It was while staying at this little island that the Span-
iards first saw the people of the Philippines. A prao
which contained nine men approached their ship. They
saw other boats fishing near and learned that all of these
people came from the island of Suluan, which lies off to
the eastward from Jomonjol about twenty kilometres.
In their life and appearance these fishing people were much
like the present Samal laut of southern Mindanao and
the Sulu Archipelago.

Limasaua. — Pigafetta says that they stayed on the
island of Jomonj61 eight days but had great difficulty m
securing food. The natives brought them a few cocoa-
nuts and oranges, palm wine, and a chicken or two, but
this was all that could be spared,, so, on the 25th, the

' Primer Viaje alrededor del Mundo, Spanish translation by Amoretti,
Madrid, 1899, page 27.

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES. 79

Spaniards sailed again, and near the south end of Leyte
landed on the little island of Limasaua. Here there was
a village, where they met two chieftains, whom Pigafetta
calls " kings," and whose names were Raja Calambii
and Raja Ciagu. These two chieftains were visiting
Limasaua and had their residences one at Butiian and one
at Cagayan on the island of Mindanao. Some histories
have stated that the Spaniards accompanied one of these
chieftains to Butuan, but this does not appear to have
been the case.

On the island of Limasaua the natives had dogs, cats,
hogs, goats, and fowls. They were cultivating rice, maize,
breadfruit, and had also cocoanuts, oranges, bananas,
citron, and ginger. Pigafetta tells how he visited one of
the chieftains at his home on the shore. The house was
built as Filipino houses are today, raised on posts and
thatched. Pigafetta thought it looked " like a haystack."

It had been the day of San Lazarus when the Spaniards
first reached these islands, so that Magellan gave to the
group the name of the Archipelago of Saint Lazarus, the
name under which the Philippines were frequently described
in the early writings, although another title, Mas del
Poniente or Islands of the West, was more conmion up
to the time when the title Filipinas became fixed.

Cebu. — Magellan's people were now getting desper-
ately in need of food, and the population on Limasaua
had very inadequate supplies; consequently the natives
directed him to the island of Cebu, and provided him
with guides.

Leaving Limasaua the fleet sailed for Cebu, passing
several large islands, among them Bohol, and reaching
Cebu harbor on Sunday, the 7th of April. A junk from
Siam was anchored at Cebu when Magellan's ships arrived

80 THE PHILIPPINES.

there; and this, together with the knowledge that the
FiHpinos showed of the surrounding countries, including
China on the one side and the Moluccas on the other, is
additional evidence of the extensive trade relations at
the time of the discovery.

Cebu seems to have been a large town and it is reported
that more than two thousand warriors with their lances
appeared to resist the landing of the Spaniards, but assur-
ances of friendliness finally won the Filipinos, and Magellan
formed a compact with the dato of Cebu, whose name was
Hamalbar.

The Blood Compact. — The dato invited Magellan to
seal this compact in accordance with a curious custom of
the Filipinos. Each chief wounded himself in the breast
and from the wound each sucked and drank the other's
blood. It is not certain whether Magellan participated in
this "blood compact," as it has been called; but later it
was observed many times in the Spanish settlement of the
islands, especially by Legaspi.

The natives were much struck by the service of the
mass, which the Spaniards celebrated on their landing,
and after some encouragement desired to be admitted to
the Spaniards' religion. More than eight hundred were
baptized, including Hamalbar. The Spaniards established
a kind of "factory" or trading-post on Cebu, and for
some time a profitable trade was engaged in. The
Filipinos well understood trading, had scales, weights,
and measures, and were fair dealers.

Death of Magellan. — And now follows the great trag-
edy of the expedition. The dato of Cebu, or the " Chris-
tian king," as Pigafetta called their new ally, was at war
with the islanders of Mactan. Magellan, eager to assist
one who had adopted the Christian faith, landed on Mac-

THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.

81

tan with fifty men and in the battle that ensued was killed
by an arrow through the leg and spear-thrust through the
breast. So died the one who was unquestionably the
greatest explorer and most daring adventurer of all time.
"Thus,^ says Pigafetta, "perished our guide, our light,
and our support." It was the crowning disaster of the
expedition.

The Fleet Visits Other Islands. — After Magellan's
death, the natives of Cebu rose and killed the newly

Magellan Monument, Manila.

elected leader, Serrano, and the fleet in fear lifted its an-
chors and sailed southward from the Bisayas. They had
lost thirty-five men and their numbers were reduced to
one hundred and fifteen. One of the ships was burned,
there being too few men surviving to handle three vessels.
After touching at western Mindanao, they sailed west-
ward, and saw the small group of Cagayan Sulu. The

82 THE PHILIPPINES.

few inhabitants they learned were Moros, exiled from
Borneo. They landed on Paragua, called Puluan (hence
Palawan), where they observed the sport of cock-fighting,
indulged in by the natives.

From here, still searching for the Moluccas, they were
guided to Borneo, the present city of Brunei. Here was
the powerful Mohammedan colony, whose adventurers
were already in communication with Luzon and had es-
tablished a colony on the site of Manila. The city was
divided into two sections, that of the Mohammedan Ma-
lays, the conquerors, and that of the Dyaks, the primi-
tive population of the island. Pigafetta exclaims over the
riches and power of this Mohammedan city. It contained
twenty-five thousand families, the houses built for most
part on piles over the water. The king's house was of
stone, and beside it was a great brick fort, with over sixty
brass and iron cannon. Here the Spaniards saw elephants
and camels, and there was a rich trade in ginger, camphor,
gums, and in pearls from Sulu.

HostiUties cut short their stay here and they sailed
eastward along the north coast of Borneo through the
Sulu Archipelago, where their cupidity was excited by
the pearl fisheries, and on to Maguindanao. Here they
took some prisoners, who piloted them south to the Mo-
luccas, and finally, on November 8, they anchored at
Tidor. These Molucca islands, at this time, were at the
height of the Malayan power. The ruler, or raja of Tidor
was Almanzar, of Ternate Corala; the "king" of Gilolo
was Yusef . With all these rulers the Spaniards exchanged
presents, and the rajas are said by the Spaniards to
have sworn perpetual amnesty to the Spaniards and ac-
knowledged themselves vassals of the king. In ex-
change for cloths, the Spaniards laid in a rich cargo of

THE GREAT GEOGHAPlIICAL DISCOVERIES. 8S

cloves, sandalwood, ginger, cinnamon, and gold. They
established here a trading-post and hoped to hold these
islands against the Portuguese.

The Return to Spain. — It was decided to send one
ship, the "Victoria," to Spain by way of the Portuguese
route and the Cape of Good Hope, while the other would
return to America. Accordingly the "Victoria," with a
Uttle crew of sixty men, thirteen of them natives, under
the command of Juan Sebastian del Cano, set sail. The
passage was unknown to the Spaniards and full of perils.
They sailed to Timor and thence out into the Indian
Ocean. They rounded Africa, sailing as far south as 42
degrees. Then they went northward, in constant peril of
capture by some Portuguese fleet, encountering storms
and with scarcity of food. Their distress must have been
extreme, for on this final passage twenty-one of their
smkll number died.

At Cape Verdi they entered the Portuguese port for
supplies, trusting that at so northern a point their real
voyage would not be suspected. But some one of the
party, who went ashore for food, in an hour of intoxica-
tion boasted of the wonderful journey they had performed
and showed some of the products of the Spice Islands.
Immediately the Portuguese governor gave orders for the
seizure of the Spanish vessel and El Cano, learning of his
danger, left his men, who had gone on shore, raised sail,
and put out for Spain.

On the 6th of September, 1522, they arrived at San
Lucar, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River, on which
is situated Seville, one ship out of the five, and eighteen
men out of the company of 234, who had set sail almost
three full years before. Spain welcomed her worn and
tired seamen with splendid acclaim. To El Cano was

84 TIIK PHILIPPINES.

given a title of nobility and the famous coat-of-arms,
showing the sprays of clove, cinnamon, and nutmeg, and
the effigy of the globe with the motto, the proudest and
worthiest ever displayed on any adventurer's shield, " Hie
primus circum dedit me."

The First Circumnavigation of the Earth. — Thus with
enormous suffering and loss of life was accomplished the
first circumnavigation of the earth. It proved that Asia
could be reached, although by a long and circuitous route,
by sailing westward from Europe. It made known to
Europe that the greatest of all oceans lies between the
New World and Asia, and it showed that the earth is in-
comparably larger than had been believed and supposed.
It was the greatest voyage of discovery that has ever
been accomplished, and greater than can ever be per-
formed again.

New Lands Divided between Spain and Portugal. — By
this discovery of the Philippines and a new way to the
Spice Islands, Spain became engaged in a long dispute with
Portugal. At the beginning of the modern age, there
was in Europe no system of rules by which to regulate
conduct between states. That system of regulations and
customs which we call International Law, and by which
states at the present time are guided in their dealings,
had not arisen. During the middle age, disputes between
sovereigns were frequently settled by reference to the em-
peror or to the pope, and the latter had frequently asserted
his right to determine all such questions as might arise.
The pope had also claimed to have the right of disposing
of- all heathen and newly discovered lands and peoples.

So, after the discovery of the East Indies by Portugal
and of the West Indies by Spain, Pope Alexander VI.,
divided the new lands between them. He declared that

Appfoxtmate ''posit

J o/^ rrieridiahjifp^as't 'fKom Link of tTemarca.tion

86 THE PHILIPPINES.

all newly discovered countries halfway around the earth
to the east of a meridian 100 leagues west of the Azores
should be Portuguese, and all to the west Spanish. Sub-
sequently he shifted this line to 270 leagues west of the
Azores. This division, it was supposed, would give India
and the Malay islands to Portugal, and to Spain the In-
dies that Columbus had discovered, and the New World,
except Brazil.

As a matter of fact, 180 degrees west of the meridian
last set by the pope extended to the western part of
New Guinea, and not quite to the Moluccas; but in the
absence of exact geographical knowledge both parties
claimed the Spice Islands. Portugal denied to Spain all
right to the Philippines as well, and, as we shall see, a
conflict in the Far East began, which lasted nearly through
the century. Portugal captured the traders, whom El
Cano had left at Tidor, and broke up the Spanish station
in the Spice Islands. The "Trinidad," the other ship,
which was intended to return to America, was unable to
sail against the strong winds, and had to put back to Ti-
dor, after cruising through the waters about New Guinea.

Effect of the Century of Discoveries. — This circumnav-
igation of the globe completed a period of- discovery
which had begun a hundred years before with the timid,
slow attempts of the Portuguese along the coast of Africa.
In these years a new era had opened. At its beginning
the European knew little of any peoples outside of his own
countries, and he held not one mile of land outside the
continent of Europe. At the end of a hundred years the
earth had become fairly well known, the African race,
the Malay peoples, the American Indians, and the Pacific
islanders had all been seen and described, and from now
on the history of the white race was to be connected

th:e great geographical discoveries. 87

with that of these other races. The age of colonization,
of world-wide trade and intercourse, had begun. The
white man, who had heretofore been narrowly pressed
in upon Europe, threatened again and again with conquest
by the Mohammedan, was now to cover the seas with his
flieets and all lands with his power.

CHAPTER V.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE THE ARRIVAL
OF THE SPANIARDS.

Position of Tribes. — On the arrival of the Spaniards,
the population of the Philippines seems to have been dis-
tributed by tribes in much the same manner as at present.
Then, as now, the Bisaya occupied the central islands
of the archipelago and some of the northern coast of
Mindanao. The Bicol, Tagdlog, and Pampango were in
the same parts of Luzon as we find them to-day. The
Ilocano occupied the coastal plain facing the China Sea,
but since the arrival of the Spaniards they have expanded
considerably and their settlements are now numerous in
Pangasinan, Nueva Vizcaya, and the valley of the Cagayan.

The Number of People. — These tribes which to-day
number nearly 7,000,000 souls, at the time of Magellan's
discovery were, probably, not more than 500,000. The
first enumeration of the population made by the Spaniards
in 1591, and which included practically all of these tribes,
gives a population of less than 700,000. (See Chapter
VIII., The Philippines Three Hundred Years Ago.)

There are other facts too that show us how sparse the
population must have been. The Spanish expeditions
found many coasts and islands in the Bisayan group
without inhabitants. Occasionally a sail or a canoe
would be seen, and then these would disappear in some
small "estero" or mangrove swamp and the land seem as
unpopulated as before. At certain points, like Lima-
saua, Butuan, and Bohol, the natives were more numer-
ous, and Cebu was a large and thriving community; hut

88

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 89

the Spaniards had nearly everywhere to search for settled
places and cultivated lands.

The sparsity of population is also well indicated by the
great scarcity of food. The Spaniards had much difficulty
in securing sufficient provisions. A small amount of rice,
a pig and a few chickens, were obtainable here and there,
but the Filipinos had no large supplies. After the settle-
ment of Manila was made, a large part of the food of
the city was drawn from China. The very ease with
which the Spaniards marched where they willed and re-
duced the Filipinos to obedience shows that the latter
were weak in numbers. Laguna and the Camarines seem
to have been the most populous portions of the archipel-
ago. All of these things and others show that the Fili-
pinos were but a small fraction of their present number.

On the other hand, the Negritos seem to have been more
numerous, or at least more in evidence. They were im-
mediately noticed on the island of Negros, where at the
present they are few and confined to the interior; and in
the vicinity of Manila and in Batangas, where they are no
longer found, they were mingling with the Tagiilog popu-
lation.

Conditions of Culture. —The culture of the various
tribes, which is now quite the same throughout the archi-
pelago, presented some differences. In the southern Bi-
sayas, where the Spaniards first entered the archipelago,
there seem to have been two kinds of natives: the hill
dwellers, who lived in the interior of the islands in small
numbers, who wore garments of tree bark and who some-
times built their houses in the trees; and the sea dwellers,
who were very much like the present day Moro tribes
south of Mindanao, who are known as the Sdmal, and
who built their villages over the sea or on the shore and

90 THE PHILIPPINES.

lived much in boats. These were probably later arrivals
than the forest people. From both of these elements the
Bisaya Filipinos are descended, but while the coast people
have been entirely absorbed, some of the hill-folk are
still pagan and uncivilized, and must be very much as
they were when the Spaniards first came.

The highest grade of culture was in the settlements
where there was regular trade with Borneo, Siam, and
China, and especially about Manila, where many Moham-
medan Malays had colonies.

Languages of the Malayan Peoples. — With the exception
of the Negrito, all the languages of the Philippines belong
to one great family, which has been called the " Malayp-
Polynesian." All are believed to be derived from one
very ancient mother-tongue. It is astonishing how widely
this Malayo-Polynesian speech has spread. Farthest east
in the Pacific there is the Polynesian, then in the groups of
small islands, known as Micronesian; then Melanesian or
Papuan; the Malayan throughout the East Indian archi-
pelago, and to the north the languages of the Philippines.
But this is not all; for far westward on the coast of Africa
is the island of Madagascar, many of whose languages have
no connection with African but belong to the Malayo-
Polynesian family.'

The Tagalog Language. — It should be a matter of
great interest to Filipinos that the great scientist. Baron

' The discovery of this famous relationship is attributed to the
Spanish Jesuit Abb^, Lorenzo Hervas, whose notable Catahgo de las
Lenguas de las Naciones conocidas was published in 1800-05; but the
similarity of Malay and Polynesian had been earlier shown by nat-
uralists who accompanied the second voyage of the famous English-
man, Captain Cook (1772-75). The full proof, and the relation also
of Malagasy, the language of Madagascar, was given in 1838 by the
work of the gieat German philologist, Baron William von Humboldt.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE ISSl. 91

William von Humboldt, considered the Tagdlog to be the
richest and most perfect of all the languages of the Malayo-
Polynesian family, and perhaps the type of them all. " It
possesses," he said, "all the forms collectively of which
particular ones are foimd singly in other dialects; and it
has preserved them all with very trifling exceptions un-
broken, and in entire harmony and symmetry." The
Spanish friars, on their arrival in the Philippines, devoted
themselves at once to learning the native dialects and to
the preparation of prayers and catechisms in these native
tongues. They were very successful in their studies.
Father Chirino tells us of one Jesuit who learned sufficient
Tagalog in seventy days to preach and hear confession.
In this way the Bisayan, the Tagalog, and the Ilocano
were soon mastered.

In the light of the opinion of Von Humboldt, it is in-
teresting to find these early Spaniards pronouncing the
Tagalog the most difficult and the most admirable. "Of
all of them," says Padre Chirino, "the one which most
pleased me and filled me with admiration was the Tagalog.
Because, as I said to the first archbishop, and afterwards
to other serious persons, both there and here, I found in
it four qualities of the four best languages of the world:
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Spanish; of the Hebrew, the
mysteries and obscurities; of the Greek, the articles and
the precision not only of the appellative but also of the"
proper nouns; of the Latin, the wealth and elegance; and
of the Spanish, the good- breeding, politeness, and cour-
tesy." '

An Early Connection with the Hindus . — The Ma-
layan languages contain also a considerable proportion of
words borrowed from the Sanskrit, and in this the Tagd-log,

^ Belacion de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 52.

92 THE PHILIPPINES.

Bisayan, and Ilocano are included. Whether these words
were passed along from one Malayan group to another, or
whether they were introduced by the actual presence and
power of the Hindu in this archipelago, may be fair ground
for debate; but the case for the latter position has been so
well and brilliantly put by Dr. Pardo de Tavera that his
conclusions are here given in his own words. "The
words which Tagalog borrowed," he says, " are those which
signify intellectual acts, moral conceptions, emotions, su-
perstitions, names of deities, of planets, of numerals of
high number, of botany, of war and its results and conse-
quences, and finally of titles and dignities, some animals,
instruments of industry, and the names of money."

From the evidence of these works. Dr. Pardo argues for
a period in the early history of the Filipinos, not merely
of commercial intercourse, like that of the Chinese, but
of Hindu political and social domination. " I do not be-
lieve," he says, "and I base my opinion on the same
words that I have brought together in this vocabulary,
that the Hindus were here simply as merchants, but that
they dominated different parts of the archipelago, where
to-day are spoken the most cultured languages, — the
Tagalo, the Visayan, the Pampanga, and the Ilocano; and
that the higher culture of these languages comes precisely
from the influence of the Hindu race over the Filipino."

The Hindus in the Philippines. — " It is impossible to
believe that the Hindus, if they came only as merchants,
however great their number, would have impressed them-
selves in such a way as to give to these islanders the num-
ber and the kind of words which they did give. These
names of dignitaries, of caciques, of high functionaries of
the court, of noble ladies, indicate that all of these high
positions with names of Sanskrit origin were occupied at

THE IHLIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 15B1. 93

one time by men who spoke that language. The words of
a similar origin for objects of war, fortresses, and battle-
songs, for designating objects of religious belief, for su-
perstitions, emotions, feelings, industrial and farming
activities, show us clearly that the warfare, religion,
literature, industry, and agriculture were at one time in
the hands of the Hindus, and that this race was effec-
tively dominant in the Philippines." *

Systems of Writing among the Filipinos. — When the
Spaniards arrived in the Philippines, the Filipinos were
using systems of writing borrowed from Hindu or Javanese
sources. This matter is so interesting that one can
not do better than to quote in full Padre Chirino's account,
as he is the first of the Spanish writers to mention it and
as his notice is quite complete.

"So given are these islanders to reading and writing
that there is hardly a man, and much less a woman, that
does not read and write in letters peculiar to the island
of Manila, very different from those of China, Japan, and
of India, as will be seen from the following alphabet.

"The vowels are three; but they serve for five, and are,

xj- ^r=r- 3

a e,i o, u

The consonants are no more than twelve, and they serve
to write both consonant and vowel, in this form. The
letter alone, without any point either above or below,
sounds with a.

1 Another possible explanation of the many Sanslcrit terms which
are found in the Philippine languages, is that the period of contact
between Filipinos and Hindus occurred not in the Philippines but in
Java and Sumatra, whence the ancestors of the Filipinos came.

94 THE PBILIPPINES.

Ba ca da ga ha la

X/ ^ \/ 03 (J^ 2^

ma na pa sa ta ya

Placing the point above, each one sounds with e or with i.

Bi qui di gui hi 11

be que de gue he le

^ m \> c^ g<» ^

mi ni pi si ti j^

me ne pe se te ye

Placing the point below, it sounds with or with u.

, » > >• 9 y

bo CO do go ho lo

bu cu du gu hu lu

V A^ v c^ g^ 1(3^

mo no po so to yo

mu nu pu su tu yu

For instance, in order to say ' cama,' the two letters alone
suffice.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 95

X V

ca ma

If to the i there is placed a point above, it will say

i t/

que ma

If it is given to both below, it will say

I x/

CO mo

The final consonants are supplied or understood in all
cases, and so to say ' cantar,' they write

I e"

ca - ta
barba,

ba ba
But with all, and that without many evasions, they make
themselves understood, and they themselves imderstand
marvelloxxsly. And the reader supplies, with much skill
and ease, the consonants that are lacking. They have
learned from us to write running the lines from the left
hand to the right, but formerly they only wrote from
above downwards, placing the first line (if I remember
rightly) at the left hand, and continuing with the others
to the right, the opposite of the Chinese and Japanese. . . .
They write upon canes or on leaves of a palm, using for
a pen a point of iron. Nowadays in writing not only

96 THE PHILIPPINES.

their own but also our letters, they use a feather very
well cut, and paper like ourselves.

They have learned our language and pronunciation, and
write as well as we do, and even better; for they are so
bright that they learn everything with the greatest ease.
I have brought with me handwriting with very good and
correct lettering. In Tigbauan, I had in school a very
small child, who in three months' time learned, by copy-
ing from well-written letters that I set him, to write
enough better than I, and transcribed for me writings of
importance very faithfully, and without errors or mis-
takes. But enough of languages and letters; now let us
return to our occupation with human souls." ^

Sanskrit Source of the Filipino Alphabet. — Besides
the Tagdlog, the Bisaya, Pampango, Pangasinan, and
Ilocano had alphabets, or more properly syllabaries sim-
ilar to this one. Dr. Pardo de Tavera has gathered many
data concerning them, and shows that they were un-
doubtedly received by the Filipinos from a Sanskrit
source.

Early Filipino Writings. — The Filipinos used this
writing for setting down their poems and songs, which
were their only literature. None of this, however, has
come down to us, and the Filipinos soon adopted the
Spanish alphabet, forming the syllables necessary to write
their language from these letters. As all these have pho-
netic values, it is still very easy for a Filipino to learn to
pronounce and so read his own tongue. These old char-
acters lingered for a couple of centuries, in certain places.
Padre Totanes ^ tells us that it was rare in 1705 to find a
person who could use them ; but the Tagbanua, a pagan

' Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., pp. 58, 59, chap. XVII.
^ Arte de la Lengua Tagala.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 97

people on the island of Paragua, use a similar syllabary
to this day. Besides poems, they had songs which they
sang as they rowed their canoes, as they pounded the
rice from its husk, and as they gathered for feast or en-
tertainment; and especially there were songs for the dead.
In these songs, says Chirino, they recounted the deeds of
their ancestors or of their deities.

Chinese in the Philippines.— Early Trade. — Very dif-
ferent from the Hindu was the early influence of the Chi-
nese. There is no evidence that, previous to the Spanish
conquest, the Chinese settled or colonized in these islands
at all; and yet three hundred years before the arrival of
Magellan their trading-fleets were coming here regularly
and several of the islands were well known to them. One
evidence of this prehistoric trade is in the ancient Chinese
jars and pottery which have been exhumed in the vicinity
of Manila, but the Chinese writings themselves furnish us
even better proof. About the beginning of the thirteenth
century, though not earlier than 1205, a Chinese author
named Chao Ju-kua wrote a work upon the maritime com-
merce of the Chinese people. One chapter of his work is
devoted to the Philippines, which he calls the country of
Mayi.^ According to this record it is indicated that
the Chinese were familiar with the islands of the archi-
pelago seven himdred years ago.^

1 This name is derived, in the opinion of Professor Blumentritt,
from Bayi, or Bay, meaning Laguna de Bay. Professor Meyer, in his
Distribution of the Negritos, suggests an identification from this Chinese
record, of the islands of Mindanao, Palawan (called Pa-lao-yu) and
Panay, Negros, Cebu, Leyte, Samar, Bohol, and Luzon.

^ Through the courtesy of Professor Zulueta, of the Manila Liceo,
permission was given to use from Chao Ju-kua's work these quota-
tions, translated from the Chinese manuscript by Professor Blumentritt.
The English translation is by Mr. P. L. Stangl.

98 THE PHILLIPINES.

Chinese Description of the People. — "The country of
Mayi," says this interesting classic, "is situated to the
north of Poni (Burney, or Borneo). About a" thousand
families inhabit the banks of a very winding stream. The
natives clothe themselves in sheets of cloth resembling
bed sheets, or cover their bodies with sarongs. (The
sarong is the gay colored, typical garment of the
Malay.) Scattered through the extensive forests are copper
Buddha images, but no one knows how they got there.^

" When the mer-
chant (Chinese)
ships arrive at
this port they an-
chor in front of
an open place . . .
? which serves as a

Filipino Iron Treasure Box. market, Where

they trade in the
produce of the coimtry. When a ship enters this port,
the captain makes presents of white umbrellas (to the
mandarins). The merchants are obliged to pay this
tribute in order to obtain the good will of these lords."
The products of the country are stated to be yellow
wax, cotton, pearls, shells, betel nuts, and yuta cloth,
which was perhaps one of the several cloths still woven
of abacd,, or pifia. The articles imported by the Chinese
were " porcelain, trade gold, objects of lead, glass beads
of all colors, iron cooHng-pans, and iron needles."

The Jfegritos. — Very curious is the accurate mention
in this Chinese writing, of the Negritos, the first of all

' " This would confirm," says Professor Blumentritt, " Dr. Pardo
de Tavera's view that in ancient times the Philippines were under the
influence of Buddhism from India."

TIIE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 99

accounts to be made of the little blacks. "In the in-
terior of the valleys lives a race called Hai-tan (Aeta).
They are of low stature, have round eyes of a yellow color,
curly hair, and their teeth are easily seen between their
lips. (That is, probably, not darkened by betel-chewing
or artificial stains.) They build their nests in the treetops
and in each nest lives a family, which only consists of
from three to five persons. They travel about in the
densest thickets of the forests, and, without being seen
themselves, shoot their arrows at the passers-by; for this
reason they are much feared. If the trader (Chinese)
throws them a small porcelain bowl, they will stoop
down to catch it and then run away with it, shouting
joyfully."

Increase iiv Chinese Trade. — These junks also visited
the more central islands, but here traffic was conducted
on the ships, the Chinese on arrival announcing them-
selves by beating gongs and the Filipinos coming out to
them in their light boats. Among other things here
offered by the natives for trade are mentioned "strange
cloth," perhaps cinamay or jusi, and fine mats.

This Chinese trade continued probably quite steadily
until the arrival of the Spaniards. Then it received an
enormous increase through the demand for Chinese food-
products and wares made by the Spaniards, and because
of the value of the Mexican silver which the Spaniards
offered in exchange.

Trade with the Moro Malays of the South. — The spread
of Mohammedanism and especially the foundation of the
colony of Borneo brought the Philippines into important
commercial relations with the Malays of the south. Pre-
vious to the arrival of the Spaniards these relations seem
to have been friendly and peaceful. The Mohammedan

100 THE PHILIPPINES.

Malays sent their praos northward for purposes of trade,
and they were also settling in the north Philippines as
they had in Mindanao.

When Legaspi's fleet, soon after its arrival, lay near the
island of Bohol, the " Maestro de Campo " had a hard fight
with a Moro vessel which had come up for trade, and
took six prisoners. One of them, whom they call the
"pilot," was closely interrogated by the Adelantado and
some interesting information obtained, which is recorded
by Padre San Augustin.^ Legaspi had a Malay slave in-
terpreter with him and San Augustin says that Padre
Urdaneta "knew well the Malayan language." The pilot
said that "those of Borneo brought for trade with the-
Filipinos, copper and tin, which was brought to Borneo
• from China, porcelain, dishes, and bells made in their
fashion, very different from those that the Christians use,
and benzoin, and colored blankets from India, and cook-
ing-pans made in China, and that they also brought iron
lances very well tempered, and knives and other articles
of barter, and that in exchange for them they took away
from the islands gold, slaves, wax, and a kind of small
seashell which they call 'sijueyes,' and which passes for
money in the kingdom of Siam and other places; and also
they carry off some white cloths, of which there is a great
quantity in the islands."

Butiian, on the north coast of Mindanao, seems to have
been quite a trading-place resorted to by vessels from all
quarters. This country, like many other parts of the
Philippines, has produced from time immemorial small
quantities of gold, and all the early voyagers speak of
the gold earrings and ornaments of the natives. Butiian
also produced sugarcane and was a trading-port for

' Conquista de las Islas Filipinas, p. 95.

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 101

slaves. This unfortunate traffic in human life seems to
have been not unusual, and was doubtless stimulated by
the commerce with Borneo. Jimks from Siam trading
with Cebu were also encountered by the Spaniards.

Result of this Intercourse and Commerce. — This inter-
course and traffic had acquainted the Filipinos with many
of the accessories of civilized life long before the arrival of
the Spaniards. Their chiefs and datos dressed in silks, and
maintained some splendor of surroundings; nearly the
whole population of the tribes of the coast wrote and

Filipino Portable Iron Cannon.

commxmicated by means of a syllabary; vessels from Lu-
zon traded as far south as Mindanao and Borneo, al-
though the products of Asia proper came through the
fleets of foreigners; and perhaps what indicates more
clearly than anything else the advance the FiUpinos were
making through their communication with outside people
is their use of firearms. Of this point there is no ques-
tion. Everywhere in the vicinity of Manila, on Lubang,
in Pampanga, at Cainta and Lagima de Bay, the Span-
iards encountered forts mounting small cannon, or "lan-
takas." ' The Filipinos seem to have understood, more-

1 Relacion de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, 1572; in Retana,
Archivo del Biblidfilo Filipinc, vol. I.

102 THE PHILIPPINES.

over, the arts of casting cannon and of making powder.
The first gun-factory estabUshed by the Spaniards was in
charge of a Fihpino from Pampanga.

Early Political and Social Life. — The Barangay. —
The weakest side of the culture of the early Filipinos was
their political and social organization, and they were weak
here in precisely the same way that the now uncivilized
peoples of northern Luzon are still weak. Their state did
not embrace the whole tribe or nation; it included simply
the community. Outside of the settlers in one immedi-
ate vicinity, all others were enemies or at most foreigners.
There were in the Philippines no large states, nor even
great rajas and sultans such as were found in the Malay
Archipelago, but instead on every island were a multitude
of small communities, each independent of the other and
frequently waging war.

The unit of their political order was a little cluster of
houses from thirty to one hundred families, called a
"barangay," and which still exists in the Philippines as
the "barrio." At the head of each barangay was a chief
known as the "dato," a word no longer used in the
northern Phihppines, though it persists among the Moros
of Mindanao. The powers of these datos within their
small areas appear to have been great, and they were
treated with utmost respect by the people.

The barangays were grouped together in tiny federa-
tions including about as much territory as the present
towns, whose affairs were conducted by the chiefs or
datos, although sometimes they seem to have all been in
obedience to a single chief, known in some places as the
"hari," at other times by the Hindu word "raja," or the
Mohammedan term "sultan." Sometimes the power of
one of these rajas seems to have extended over the

TBE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE IBSl. 103

whole of a small island, but usually their "kingdoms"
embraced only a few miles.

Changes Made by the Spaniards. — The Spaniards,
in enforcing their authority through the islands, took
away the real power from the datos, grouping the baran-
gays into towns, or "pueblos," but making the datos
"cabezas de barrio," or '' gobernadorcillos." Something
of the old distinction between the dato, or "principal,"
and the common man may be still represented in the
"gente illustrada," or the more wealthy, educated, and
influential class found in each town, and the "gente baja,"
or the poor and uneducated.

Classes of Filipinos under the Datos. — Beneath the
datos, according to Chirino and Morga, there were three
classes of Filipinos; the free persons, or "maharlica," who
paid no tribute to the dato, but who accompanied him to
war, rowed his boat when he went on a journey, and at-
tended him in his house. This class is called by Morga
" timauas." '

Then there was a very large class, who appear to have
been freedmen or liberated slaves, who had acquired their
own homes and lived with their families, but who owed
to dato or maharlica heavy debts of service; to sow and
harvest in his ricefields, to tend his fish-traps, to row his
canoe, to build his house, to attend him when he had
guests, and to perform any other duties that the chief
might command. These semi-free were called "aliping
namamahay," and their condition of bondage descended
to their children.

Beneath these existed a class of slaves. These were the
"siguiguiliris," and they were numerous. Their slavery

' Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 297.

104 THE PHILIPPINES.

arose in several ways. Some were those who as children
had been captured in war and their lives spared. Some
became slaves by selling their freedom in times of hunger.
But most of them became slaves through debt, which de-
scended from father to son. The sum of five or six pesos
was enough in some cases to deprive a man of his freedom.

These slaves were absolutely owned by their lord, who
could theoretically sell them like cattle; but, in spite of
its bad possibilities, this Filipino slavery was ordinarily
not of a cruel or distressing nature. The slaves frequently
associated on kindly relations with their masters and were
not overworked. This form of slavery still persists in the
Philippines among the Moros of Mindanao and Jolo. Chil-
dren of slaves inherited their parents' slavery. If one
parent was free and the other slave, the first, third, and
fifth children were free and the second, fourth, and sixth
slaves. This whole matter of inheritance of slavery was
curiously worked out in minute details.

Life in the Barangay. — Community feeling was very
strong within the barangay. A man could not leave his
own barangay for life in another without the consent of
the community and the payment of money. If a man of
one barrio married a woman of another, their children
were divided between the two barangays. The barangay
was responsible for the good conduct of its members, and
if one of them suffered an injury from a man outside, the
whole barangay had to be appeased. Disputes and wrongs
between members of the same barangay were referred to
a number of old men, who decided the matter in accord-
ance with the customs of the tribe, which were handed
down by tradition.'

' These data are largely taken from the account of the customs
of the Tagdlog prepared by Friar Juan de Piasencia, in 1589, at the

THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE 1521. 105

The Religion of the FiUpinos. — The Filipinos on the
arrival of the Spaniards were fetish-worshipers, but they
had one spirit whom they believed was the greatest of all
and the creator or maker of things. The Tagalog called
this deity Bathala/ the Bisaya, Laon, and the Ilocano,
Kabunian. They also worshiped the spirits of their an-
cestors, which were represented by small images called
"anitos." Fetishes, which are any objects believed to
possess miraculous power, were common among the people,
and idols or images were worshiped. Pigafetta describes
some idols which he saw in Cebu, and Chirino tells us that,
within the memory of Filipinos whom he knew, they had
idols of stone, wood, bone, or the tooth of a crocodile, and
that there were some of gold.

' They also reverenced animals and birds, especially the
crocodile, the raven, and a mythical bird of blue or yellow
color, whch was called by the name of their deity Bathala.^
They had no temples or public places of worship, but
each one had his anitos in his own house and performed
his sacrifices and acts of worship there. As sacrifices
they killed pigs or chickens, and made such occasions
times of feasting, song, and chunkenness. The life of the

request of Dr. Santiago de Vera, the governor and president of the
Audiencia. Although there are references to it by the early his-
torians of the Philippines, this little code did not see the light until
a few years ago, when a manuscript copy was discovered in the con-
vent of the Franciscans at ManUa, by Dr. Pardo de Tavera, and was
by him pubUshed. It treats of slave-holding, penalties for crime,
inheritances, adoption, dowry, and marriage. {Las Costumbres de los
Tagdlog en Filipinas, segun el Padre Plasencia, by T. H. Pardo de
Tavera. Madrid, 1892.)

> See on this matter Diccionario Mitologico de Filipinas, by Blu-
mentritt; Retana, Archivo del Biblidfilo Filipino, vol. II.

2 This word is of Sanskrit origin and is common throughout Malay-

106 THE PHILIPPINES.

Filipino was undoubtedly filled with superstitious fears
and imaginings.

The Mohammedan Malays. — The Mohammedans out-
side of southern Mindanao and Jolo, had settled in the
vicinity of Manila Bay and on Mindoro, Lubang, and
adjacent coasts of Luzon. The spread of Mohammedan-
ism was stopped by the Spaniards, although it is nar-
rated that for a long time many of those living on the
shores of Manila Bay refused to eat pork, which is for-
bidden by the Koran, and practiced the rite of circum-
cision. As late as 1583, Bishop Salazar, in writing to the
king of affairs in the Philippines, says the Moros had
preached the law of Mohammed to great numbers in these
islands and by this preaching many of the Gentiles had
become Mohammedans; and further he adds, "Those who
have received this foul law guard it with much persistence
and there is great difficulty in making them abandon it;
and with cause too, for the reasons they give, to our
shame and confusion, are that they were better treated
by the preachers of Mohammed than they have been by
the preachers of Christ." '

Material Progress of the Filipinos. — The material sur-
roundings of the Filipino before the arrival of the Span-
iards were in nearly every way quite as they are to-day.
The "center of population" of each town to-day, with its
great church, tribunal, stores and houses of stone and
wood, is certainly in marked contrast; but the appear-
ance of a barrio a little distance from the center is
to-day probably much as it was then. Then, as now,
the bulk of the people lived in humble houses of bam-

' Relacion de las Cosas de las Filipinas hecha por Sr. Domingo de'
Salazar, Primer obispo de dichas islas, 1583; in Retaua, Archivo,
vol. III.

te:b: FILIPINO people before 15S1. 107

boo and nipa raised on piles above the dampness of
the soil; then, as now, the food was largely rice and the
excellent fish which abound in river and sea. There were
on the water the same f amihar bancas and fish corrals, and
on land the rice fields and cocoanut groves. The Fili-
pinos had then most of the present domesticated animals,
— dogs, cats, goats, chickens, and pigs, — and perhaps in
Luzon the domesticated buffalo, although this animal was
widely introduced into the Philippines from China after
the Spanish conquest. Horses came with the Spaniards
and their numbers were increased by the bringing in of
Chinese mares, whose importation is frequently mentioned.

The Spaniards introduced also the cultivation of to-
bacco, coiTee, arid cacao, and perhaps also the native corn
of America, the maize, although Pigafetta says they found
it already growing in the Bisayas.

The Filipino has been affected by these centuries of
Spanish sovereignty far less on his material side than he
has on his spiritual, and it is mainly in the deepening and
elevating of his emotional and mental life and not in the
bettering of his material condition that advance has been
made.

CHAPTER VI.

THE SPANISH SOLDIER AND THE SPANISH

MISSIONARY.

History of the Philippines as a Part of the History of
the Spanish Colonies. — We have already seen how the
Phihppines were discovered by Magellan in his search for
the Spice Islands. Brilliant and romantic as is the story
of that voyage, it brought no immediate reward to Spain.
Portugal remained in her enjoyment of the Eastern trade
and nearly half a century elapsed before Spain obtained
a settlement in these islands. But if for a time he neg-
lected the Far East, the Spaniard from the Peninsula
threw himself with almost incredible energy and devo-
tion into the material and spiritual conquest of America.
All the greatest achievements of the Spanish soldier and
the Spanish missionary had been secured within fifty
years from the day when Columbus sighted the West
Indies.

In order to understand the history of the Philippines,
we must not forget that these islands formed a part of
this great colonial empire and were under the same ad-
ministration; that for over two centuries the Philippines
were reached through Mexico and to a certain extent
governed by Mexico; that the same governors, judges, and
soldiers held office in both hemispheres, passing from
America to the Philippines and being promoted from the
Islands to the higher official positions of Mexico and Peru.
So to understand the rule of Spain in the Philippines, we
must study the great administrative machinery and the

108

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIO.VARY- 109

great body of laws which she developed for the govern-
ment of the Indies.'

Character of the Spanish Explorers. — The conquests
themselves were largely effected through the enterprise
and wealth of private individuals; but these men held
commissions from the Spanish crown, their actions were
subject to strict royal control, and a large proportion of
the profits and plunder of their expeditions were paid to
the royal treasury. Upon some of these conquerors the
crown bestowed the proud title of " adelantado." The
Spanish nobility threw themselves into these hazardous
midertakings with the courage and fixed determination
born of their long struggle with the Moors. Out of the
soul-trying circumstances of Western conquest many ob-
scure men rose, through their brilliant qualities of spirit,
to positions of eminence and power; but the exalted of-
fices of viceroy and governor were reserved for the titled
favorites of the king.

The Royal Audiencia. — Very early the Spanish court,
in order to protect its own authority, found it necessary
to succeed the ambitious and adventurous conqueror by a
ruler in close relationship with and absolute dependence
on the royal will. Thus in Mexico, Cortes the conqueror
was removed and replaced by the viceroy Mendoza, who
established upon the conquests of the former the great
Spanish colony of New Spain, to this day the most suc-
cessful of all the states planted by Spain in America.

To limit the power of the governor or viceroy, as weU

' The foundation and character of this great colonial administra-
tion have been admirably described by the Honorable Bernard Moses,
United States Philippine Commissioner and the first Secretary of
Public Instruction, in his work, The Establishment of Spanish Rule in
America.

110 THE PHILIPPINES.

as to act as a supreme court for the settlement of actions
and legal questions, Spain created the " Royal Audiencia."
This was a body of men of noble rank and learned in the
law, sent out from Spain to form in each country a co-
lonial court; but their powers were not alone judicial;
they were also administrative. In the absence of the
governor they assumed his duties.

Treatment of the Natives by the Spanish. — In his treat-
ment of the natives, whose lands he captured, the Span-
ish king attempted three things, — first, to secure to the
colonist and to the crown the advantages of his labor,
second, to convert the Indians to the Christian religion as
maintained by the Roman Catholic Church, and third, to
protect them from cruelty and inhumanity. Edict after
edict, law after law, issued from the Spanish throne with
these ends in view. As they stand upon the greatest of
colonial law-books, the Recopilacion de Leyes de las Indias,
they display an admirable sensitiveness to the needs of
the Indian and an appreciation of. the dangers to which
he was subjected; but in the actual practice these benefi-
cent provisions were largely useless.

The first and third of Spain's purposes in her treatment
of the native proved incompatible. History has shown
that liberty and enlightenment can not be taken from a
race with one hand and protection given it with the other.
All classes of Spain's colonial government were frankly in
pursuit of wealth. Greed filled them all, and was the
mainspring of every discovery and every settlement. The
king wanted revenue for his treasury; the noble and the
soldier, booty for their private purse; the friar, wealth for
his order; the bishop, power for his church. All this
wealth had to come out of the native toiler on the lands
which the Spanish conqueror had seized; and while noble

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY 111

motives were probably never absent and at certain times
prevailed, yet in the main the native of America and of
the Philippines was a sufferer under the hand and power
of the Spaniard.

" The Encomenderos." — Spain's system of controlling
the lives and the labor of the Indians was based to a cer-
tain extent on the feudal system, still surviving in the
Peninsula at the time of her colonial conquests. The
captains and soldiers and priests of her successful con-
quests had assigned to them great estates or fruitful lands
with their native inhabitants, which they managed and
ruled for their own profit. Such estates were called first
" repartimientos." But very soon it became the practice,
in America, to grant large numbers of Indians to the ser-
vice of a Spaniard, who had over them the power of a
master and who enjoyed the profits of their labor. In
return he was supposed to provide for the conversion of
the Indians and their religious instruction. Such a grant
of Indians was called an " encomienda." The "encomen-
dero" was not absolute lord of the lives and properties of
the Indians, for elaborate laws were framed for the latter's
protection. Yet the granting of subjects without the land
on which they lived made possible their transfer and sale
from one encomendero to another, and in this way thou-
sands of Indians of America were made practically slaves,
and were forced into labor in the mines.

As we have already seen, the whole system was attacked
by the Dominican priest. Las Casas, a truly noble char-
acter in the history of American colonization, and various
efforts were made in America to Hmit the encomiendas and
to prevent their introduction into Mexico and Peru ; but
the great power of the encomendero in America, together
with the iiifluence of the Church, which held extensive

112 THE PHILIPPINES.

encomiendas, had been sufficient to extend the institution,
even against Las Casas' impassioned remonstrances. Its
abolition in Mexico was decreed in 1544, but " commis-
sioners representing the municipaUty of Mexico and the
rehgious orders were sent to Spain to ask the king 'to re-
voke at least those parts of the ' New Laws ' which
threatened the interests of the settlers. By a royal decree
of October 20, 1545, the desired revocation was granted.
This action filled the Spanish settlers with joy and the en-
slaved Indians with despair." '

Thus was the institution early established as a part
of the colonial system and came with the conquerors to
the Philippines.

Restrictions on Colonization and Commerce. — For the
management of all colonial affairs the king created a
great board, or bureau, known as the "Council of the In-
dies," which sat in Madrid and whose members were among
the highest officials of Spain. The Spanish government
exercised the closest supervision over all colonial matters,
and colonization was never free. All persons, wares, and
ships, passing from Spain to any of her colonial posses-
sions, were obliged to pass through Seville, and this one
port alone.

This wealthy ancient city, situated on the river Gua-
dalquivir in southwestern Spain, was the gateway to the
Spanish Empire. From this^port went forth the mailed
soldier, the robed friar, the adventurous noble, and the
brave and highborn Spanish ladies, who accompanied their
husbands to such great distances over the sea. And back
to this port were brought the gold of Peru, the silver of
Mexico, and the silks and embroideries of China, dis-
patched through the Philippines.

' Moses: Establishment of Spanish Ride in America, p. 12.

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 113

It must be observed that all intercourse between Spain
and her colonies was rigidly controlled by the govern-
ment. Spain sought to create and maintain an exclusive
monopoly of her colonial trade. To enforce and direct
this monopoly, there was at Seville the Commercial
House, or "Casa de Contratacion." No one could sail
from Spain to a colonial possession without a permit and
after government registration. No one could send out
goods or import them except through the Commercial
House and upon the payment of extraordinary imposts.
Trade was absolutely forbidden to any except Spaniards.
And by her forts and fleets Spain strove to isolate her col-
onies from the approach of Portuguese, Dutch, or English,
whose ships, no less daringly manned than those of Spain
herself, were beginning to traverse the seas in search
of the plunder and spoils of foreign conquest and trade.

Summary of the Colonial Policy of Spain. — Spain
sought foreign colonies, first, for the spoils of accumulated
wealth that could be seized and carried away at once, and,
secondly, for the income that could be procured through
the labor of the inhabitants of the lands she gained. In
framing her government and . administration of her colo-
nies, she sought primarily the political enlightenment and
welfare neither of the Spanish colonist nor the native race,
but the glory, power, and patronage of the crown. The
commercial and trade regulations were devised, not to
develop the resources and increase the prosperity of the
colonies, but to add wealth to the Peninsula. Yet the
purposes of Spain were far from being wholly selfish.
With zeal and success she sought the conversion of the
heathen natives, whom she subjected, and in this showed
a humanitarian interest in advance of the Dutch and Eng-
lish, who rivaled her in colonial empire.

114 THE PHILIPPINES.

The colonial ideals under which the policy of Spain was
framed were those of the times. In the centuries that
have succeeded, public wisdom and conscience on these
matters have immeasurably improved. Nations no longer
make conquests frankly to exploit them, but the public
opinion of the world demands that the welfare of the co-
lonial subject be sought and that he be protected from
official greed. There is great advance still to be made.
It can hardly be said that the world yet recognizes that a
stronger people should assist a weaker without assurance
of material reward, but this is the direction in which the
most enlightened feeling is advancing. Every undertak-
ing of the white race, which has such aims in view, is an
experiment worthy of the most profound interest and
most solicitous sympathy.

Result of the Voyage of Magellan and El Cano. — The
mind of the Spanish adventurer was greatly excited by
the results of Sebastian del Cano's voyage. Here was the
opportimity for rich trade and great profit. Numerous
plans were laid before the king, one of them for the build-
ing of an Indian trading-fleet and an annual voyage to the
Moluccas to gather a great harvest of spices.

Portugal protested against this move until the question
of her claim to the Moluccas, under the division of Pope
Alexander, could be settled. The exact longitude of Ter-
nate west from the line 370 leagues beyond the Verde
Islands was not well known. Spaniards argued that it
was less than 180 degrees, and, therefore, in spite of Por-
tugal's earlier discovery, belonged to them. The pilot,
Medina, for example, explained to Charles V. that from
the meridian 370 degrees west of San Anton (the most
westerly island of the "\''erde group) to the city of Mexico
was 59 degrees, from Mexico to Navidad, 9 degrees, and

SPAXISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 115

from this port to Cebu, 100 degrees, a total of only 168
degrees, leaving a margin of 12 degrees; therefore by the
pope's decision the Indies, Moluccas, Borneo, Gilolo, and
the Philippines were Spain's.' A great council of em-
bassadors and cosmographers was held at Badajoz in 1524,
but reached no agreement. Spain announced her resolu-
tion to occupy the Moluccas, and Portugal threatened
with death the Spanish adventurers who should be found
there.

The First Expedition to the Philippines. — Spain acted
immediately upon her determination, and in 1525 dis-
patched an expedition under Jofre_de Loaisa to reap the
fruits of Magellan's discoveries.^ The captain of one ves-
sel was Sebastian del Cano, who completed the voyage of
Magellan. On his ship sailed Andres de Urdaneta, who
later became an Augustian friar and accompanied the
expedition of Legaspi that finally effected the settlement
of the PhiUppines. Not without great hardship and losses
did the fleet pass the Straits of Magellan and enter the
Pacific Ocean. In mid-ocean Loaisa died, and four days
later the heroic Sebastian del Cano. Following a route
somewhat similar to that of Magellan, the fleet reached
first the Ladrone Islands and later the coast of Mindanao.
From here they attempted to sail to Cebu, but the strong
northeast monsoon drove them southward to the Mo-
luccas, and they landed on Tidor the last day of the year
1526.

' Demarcaddn del Maluco, hecha por el maestro Medina, in Docit-
mentox iniditos, vol. V., p. 552.

' This and subsequent voyages are given in the Documentos iniditos,
vol. v., and a graphic account is in Argensola's Conquista de las Islas
MoliuMS. They are also well narrated in English by Bumey, Dis-
axoeries in the South Sea, vol. I., chapters V., XII., and XIV.

116 THE PHILIPPINES.

The Failure of the Expedition.— The Portuguese
were at this moment fighting to reduce the native rajas of
these islands to subjection. They regarded the Spaniards
as enemies, and each party of Europeans was shortly en-
gaged in fighting and in inciting the natives against the
other. The condition of the Spaniards became desperate
in the extreme, and indicates at what cost of life the con-
quests of the sixteenth century were made. Their ships
had become so battered by storm as to be no longer sea-
worthy. The two officers, who had successively followed
Loaisa and El Cano in command, had likewise perished.
Of the 450 men who had sailed from Spain, but 120 now
survived. These, under the leadership of Hernando de la
Torre, threw up a fort on the island of Tidor, unable to
go farther or to retire, and awaited hoped-for succor from
Spain.

Relief came, not from the Peninsula, but from Mexico.
Under the instructions of the Spanish king, in Octo-
ber, 1527, Cortes dispatched from Mexico a small expedi-
tion in charge of D. Alvaro de Saavedra. Swept rapidly
by the equatorial trades, in a few months Saavedra had
traversed the Carolines, reprovisioned on Mindanao, and
reached the survivors on Tidor. Twice' they attempted
to return to New Spain, but strong trade winds blow
without cessation north and south on either side of the
equator for the space of more than twelve hundred miles,
and the northern latitude of calms and prevailing westerly
winds were not yet known.

Twice Saavedra beat his way eastward among the
strange islands of Papua and Melanesia, only to be at
last driven back upon Tidor and there to die. The sur-
vivors were forced to abandon the Moluccas. By sur-
rendering to the Portuguese they were assisted to return

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 117

to Europe by way of Malacca, Ceylon, and Africa, and
they arrived at Lisbon in 1536, the survivors of Loaisa's
expedition, having been gone from Spain eleven years.

The efforts of the Spanish crown to obtain possession
of the Spice Islands, the Celebes and Moluccas, with their
coveted products of nutmeg, cinnamon, and pepper, were
for the time being ended. By the Treaty of Zaragoza
(1529) the Emperor, Charles V., for the sum of three
hundred and fifty thousand gold ducats, renounced all
claim to the Moluccas. For thirteen years the provisions
of this treaty were respected by the Spaniards, and then
another attempt was made to obtain a foothold in the
East Indies.

The Second Expedition to the Philippines. — The facts
that disaster had overwhelmed so many, that two oceans
must be crossed, and that no sailing-route from Asia back
to America was known, did not deter the Spaniards from
their perilous conquests; and in 1542 another expedition
sailed from Mexico, under command of Lopez de Villa-
lobos, to explore the Philippines and if possible to reach
China.

Across the Pacific they made a safe and pleasant
voyage. In the warm waters of the Pacific they sailed
among those wonderful coral atolls, rings of low shore,
decked with palms, grouped in beautiful archipelagoes,
whose appearance has never failed to delight the navi-
gator, and whose composition is one of the most interest-
ing subjects known to students of the earth's structure and
history. Some of these coral islands Villalobos took pos-
session of in the name of Spain. These were perhaps the
Pelew Islands or the Carolines.

At last Villalobos reached the east coast of Mindanao,
but after some deaths and sickness they sailed again and

118 THE PHILIPPINES.

were carried south by the monsoon to the Uttle island
of Sarangani, south of the southern peninsula of Mindanao.
The natives were hostile, but the Spaniards drove them
from their stronghold and made some captures of musk,
amber, oil, and gold-dust. In need of provisions, they
planted the maize, or Indian com, the wonderful cereal of
America, which yields so bounteously, and so soon after
planting. Food was greatly needed by the Spaniards and
was very difficult to obtain.

The Jfaming of the Islands. — Villalobos equipped a
small vessel and sent it northward to try to reach Cebu.
This vessel reached the coast of Samar. Villalobos gave
to the island the name of Filipina, in honor of the Spanish
Infante, or heir apparent, PhiHp, who was soon to succeed
his father Charles V. as King Philip the Second of Spain.
Later in his correspondence with the Portuguese Villalobos
speaks of the archipelago as Las Fihpinas. Although for
many years the title of the Islas del Poniente continued
in use, Villalobos' name of Fihpinas gradually gained place
and has lived.

The End of the Expedition. — While on Sarangani
demands were made by the Portuguese, who claimed
that Mindanao belonged with the Celebes, that the Span-
iards should leave. Driven from Mindanao by lack
of food and hostility of the natives, Villalobos was
blown southward by storms to Gilolo. Here, after long
negotiations, the Portuguese compelled him to surrender.
The survivors of the expedition dispersed, some remain-
ing in the Indies, and some eventually reaching Spain;
but Villalobos, overwhelmed by discouragement, died on
the island of Amboyna. The priest who ministered to
him in his last hours was the famous Jesuit missionary to
the Indies, Saint Francis Xavier.

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. Il9

Twenty-three years were to elapse after the sailing of
Villalobos' fleet before another Spanish expedition should
reach the Philippines. The year 1565 dates the perma-
nent occupation of the archipelago by the Spanish.

Increase in Political Power of the Church. — Under
Philip the Second, the champion of ecclesiasticism, the
Spanish crown cemented the union of the monarchy with
the church and devoted the resources of the empire, not
only to colonial acquisition, but to combating the Pro-
testant revolution on the one hand and heathenism on
the other. The Spanish king effected so close a imion of
the church and state in Spain, that from this time on
churchmen rose higher and higher in the Spanish councils,
and profoundly influenced the policy and fate of the na-
tion. The policy of Philip the Second, however, brought
upon Spain the revolt of the Dutch Lowlands and the
wars with England, and her struggle with these two
nations drained her resources both on land and sea, and
occasioned a physical and moral decline. But while
Spain was constantly losing power and prestige in Europe,
the king was extending his colonial domain, lending royal
aid to the ambitious adventiffer and to the ardent mis-
sionary friar. Spain's object being to christianize as well
as to conquer, the missionary became a very important
figure in the history of every colonial enterprise, and
these great orders to whom missions were intrusted thus
became the central institutions in the history of the,
Philippines.

The Rise of Monasticism, — Monasticism was introduced
into Europe from the East at the very commencement of
the Middle Ages. The fundamental idea of the old mo-
nasticism was retirement from human society in the belief
that the world was bad and could not be bettered, and

120 THE PHILIPPINES.

that men could lead holier lives and better please God by
forsaking secular employments and family relations, and
devoting all their attention to purifying their characters.
The first monastic order in Europe were the Benedictines,
organized in the seventh century, whose rule and organ-
ization were the pattern for those that followed.

The clergy of the church were divided thus into two
groups, — first, the parish priests, or ministers, who lived
among the people over whom they exercised the care of
souls, and who, because they were of the people themselves
and lived their lives in association with the community,
were known as the "secular clergy," and second, the
monks, or "regular clergy," were so called because they
lived imder the "rule" of their order.

In the early part of the thirteenth century monasti-
cism, which had waned somewhat during the preceding
two centuries, received a new impetus and inspiration
from the organization of new orders known as brethren
or "Friars." The idea underlying their organization was
noble, and above that of the old monasticism; for it was
the idea of service, of ministry both to the hearts and
bodies of depressed and suffering men.

The Dominicans. — The Order of Dominicans was or-
ganized by Saint Dominic, an Italian, about 1215. The
primary gbject of its members was to defend the doc-
trines of the Church and, by teaching and preaching,
destroy the doubts and protests which in the thirteenth
century were beginning to disturb the claims of the Cath-
olic Church and the Papacy. The Dominican friars did
not live in communities, but traveled about, humbly clad,
preaching in the villages and towns, and seeking to ex-
pose and punish the heretic. The mediaeval universities,
through their study of philosophy and the Roman law,

SPANISH SOLDIER AND MISSIONARY. 121

were producing a class of men disposed to hold opinions
contrary to the teachings of the Church. The Dominicans
realized the importance of these great centers of instruc-
tion and entered them as teachers and masters, and by
the beginning of the fifteenth century had made them
strongholds of conservatism and orthodoxy.

T7ie Franciscans. — A few years after this organiza-
tion, the Order of Franciscans was founded by Saint
Francis of Assisi, of Spain. The aims of this order were
not only to preach and administer the sacraments, but to
nurse the sick, provide for the destitute, and alleviate the
dreadful misery which affected whole classes in the Middle
Ages. They took vows of absolute poverty, and so hum-
ble was the garb prescribed by their rule that they went
barefooted from place to place.

The MigasUnian Order was founded by Pope Alex-
ander IV., in 1265, and still other orders came later.

The Degeneration of the Orders. — Without doubt the
early ministrations of these friars were productive of great
good both on the religious and humanitarian sides. But,
as the orders became wealthy, the friars lost their spiritu-
ality and their lives grew vicious. By the beginning of
the sixteenth century the administration of the Church
throughout Europe had become so corrupt, the economic
burden of the religious orders so great, and religious
teaching and belief so material, that the best and noblest
minds in all coimtries were agitating for reform.

The Reformation. — In addition to changes in church
admuiistration, many Christians were demanding a greater
freedom of religious thinking and radical changes in the
Church doctrine which had taken form in the Middle Ages.
Thus, while all the best minds in the Church were united
in seeking a reformation of character and of admin-

132 THE PHILIPPINES.

The sailing of these vessels left Legaspi in Cebu with
a colony of only one hundred and fifty Spaniards, poorly
provided with resources, to commence the conquest of the
Philippines. But he won the friendship and respect of
the inhabitants, and in 1568 two galleons with reinforce-
ments arrived from Acapulco. From this time on nearly
yearly communication was maintained, fresh troops with
munitions and supplies arriving with each expedition.

The First Expedition against the Moro Pirates. — Pirates
of Mindoro. — The Spaniards found the Straits of San
Bernardino and the Mindoro Sea swarming with the fleets
of Mohammedan Malays from Borneo and the Jolo Archi-
pelago. To a race living so continuously upon the water,
piracy has always possessed irresistible attractions. In
the days of Legaspi, the island of Mindoro had been par-
tially settled by Malays from the south, and many of these
settlements were devoted to piracy, preying especially
upon the towns on the north coast of Panay. In Janu-
ary, 1570, Legaspi dispatched his grandson, Juan de
Salcedo, to punish these marauders.^

Capture of Pirate Strongholds. — Salcedo had a force
of forty Spaniards and a large number of Bisaya. He
landed on the western coast of Mindoro and took the
pirate town of Mamburao. The main stronghold of the
Moros he found to be on the small island of Lubang,
northwest of Mindanao. Here they had three strong forts
with high walls, on which were mounted small brass can-
non, or "lantakas. " Two of these forts were surrounded
by moats. There were several days of fighting before Lu-
bang was conquered. The possession of Lubang brought

' There is an old account of this interesting expedition by one
who participated. (Relaeion de la Conquisia de la Isla de Luzon,
Manila, 1572; Retana, Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. IV.)

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 133

the Spaniards almost to the entrance of Manila Bay.
Meanwhile, a captain, Enriquez de Guzman, had dis-
covered Masbate, Burias, and Ticao, and had landed on
Luzon in the neighborhood of Albay, called then, " Italon."
Conquest of the Moro City of Manila. — Expedition
from Panaij. — Reports had come to Legaspi of an im-
portant Mohammedail settlement named "May-nila," on
the shore of a great bay, and a Mohammedan chieftain,
called Maomat, was procured to guide the Spaniards on-
their conquest of this region.' For this purpose Legaspi

straits of Manila.

sent his field-marshal, Martin de Goiti, with Salcedo, one
hundred and twenty Spanish soldiers, and fourteen or
fifteen boats filled with Bisayan allies. They left Panay
early in May, and, after stopping at Mindoro, came to
anchor in Manila Bay, off the mouth of the Pasig River.

The Mohammedan City. — On the south bank of the
river was the fortified town of the Mohammedan chief-
tain, Raja Soliman; on the north bank was the town of
Tondo, under the Raja Alcandora, or Lacandola. Morga^
tells us that these Mohammedan settlers from the island

Morga: Sucesos de las Idas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 10.
Siuxsos, de las Islas Filipinas. P. 316.

2. Araenal

ii Audicnaia or Court Hcnt&e

i. Military Uoapital

5 Vnxi.eraity of ISt.TJwinab

C Ayvntamiento or Palace

7 Archbiahop'a Eaiace

8 / t»ndencia
J CmsuXate

I College of Santa FolciioiaTui

10. Church of

11. Church of Santo Domingo

12. Catlied-rnl

13. College of San Juan de
Letran

14. Church and College <
Santa Isabel

15. JHoepital of S Juan de Dioa

16. Chu-rch and Convent of
San Avffustin

17. Ordmi

18. Church of San FrancUco

THE CITY OF

MANILA

( Aduptod from Buseta Diuclonario
de loe leloB PUIgilaos.)

134

CONQUEST AiXD SETTLEMEXT, 1565-16U0. 135

of Borneo had commenced to arrive on the island only a
few years before the coming of the Spaniards. They had
settled and married among the Filipino population already
occupying Manila Bay, and had introduced some of the
forms and practices of the Mohammedan religion. The
city of Manila was defended by a fort, apparently on the
exact sight of the present fort of Santiago. It was built
of the tnmks of palms, and had embrasures where were
mounted a considerable number of cannon, or lantakas.

Capture of the City. — The natives received the for-
eigners at first with a show of friendliness, but after they
had landed on the banks of the Pasig, Soliman, with
a large force, assaulted them. The impetuous Spaniards
charged, and carried the fortifications, and the natives
fled, setting fire to their settlement. When the fight was
over the Spaniards found among the dead the body of
a Portuguese artillerist, who had directed the defense.
Doubtless he was one who had deserted from the Portu-
guese garrison far south in the Indian archipelago to cast
in his fortunes with the Malays. It being the commence-
ment of the season of rains and typhoons, the Spaniards
decided to defer the occupation of Manila, and, after ex-
ploring Cavite harbor, they returned to Panay.

A year was spent in strengthening their hold on the
Bisayas and in arranging for their conquest of Luzon.
On Masbate was placed a friar and six soldiers, so small
was the number that could be spared.

Founding of the Spanish City of Manila. — With a force
of 280 men Legaspi returned in the spring of 1571 to the
conquest of Luzon. It was a bloodless victory. The
Filipino rajas declared themselves vassals of the Spanish
king, and in the months of May and June the Spaniards
established themselves in the present site of the city.

136 THE PHILIPPINES.

At once Legaspi gave orders for the reconstruction of
the fort, the building of a palace, a convent for the Au-
gustinian monks, a church, and 150 houses. The bounda-
ries of this city followed closely the outlines of the Tagalog
city "Maynila," and it seems probable that the location
of buildings then established have been adhered to until
the present time. This settlement appeared so desirable
to Legaspi that he at once designated it as the capital of
the archipelago. Almost immediately he organized its
governing assembly, or ayuntamiento.

The First Battle on Manila Bay. — In spite of their
ready submission, the rajas, Soliman and Lacandola, did
not yield their sovereignty without a struggle. They were
able to secure assistance in the Tagdlog and Pampanga
settlements of Macabebe and Hagonoy. A great fleet of
forty war-praos gathered in palm-lined estuaries on the
north shore of Manila Bay, and came sweeping down the
shallow coast to drive the Spaniards from the island.
Against them were sent Goiti and fifty men. The protec-
tive mail armor, the heavy swords afid lances, the horrible
firearms, coupled with the persistent courage and fierce^
resolution of the Spanish soldier of the sixteenth century,
swept back this native armament. The chieftain Soliman
was killed.

The Conquest of Central Luzon. — Goiti continued his
marching and conquering northward until nearly the
whole great plain of central Luzon, that stretches from
Manila Bay to the Gulf of Lingayen, lay submissive before
him. A little later the raja Lacandola died, having ac-
cepted Christian baptism, and the only powerful resist-
ance on the island of Luzon was ended.

Goiti was sent back to the Bisayas, and the command
of the army of Luzon fell to Salcedo, the brilliant and

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 137

daring grandson of Legaspi, at this time only twenty-two
years of age. This young knight led his command up the
Pasig River. Cainta and Taytay, at that time impor-
tant Tagalog towns, were conquered, and then the coun-
try south of Laguna de Bay. The town of Cainta was
fortified and defended by small cannon, and although
Salcedo spent three days in negotiations, it was only
taken by storm, in which four hundred Filipino men and
women perished.' From here Salcedo marched over the
mountains to the Pacific coast and south into the Cam-
arines, where he discovered the gold mines of Paracale and
Mamburao.

At about this time the Spaniards conquered the Cuyos
and Calamianes islands and the northern part of Paragua.

Exploration of the Coast of Northern Luzon. — In 1572,
Salcedo, with a force of only forty-five men, sailed north-
ward from Manila, landed in Zambales and Pangasinan,
and on the long and rich Ilocos coast effected a permanent
submission of the inhabitants. He also visited the coast
farther north, where the great and fertile valley of the
Cagayan, the largest- river of the archipelago, reaches to
the sea. From here he continued his adventurous journey
down the Pacific coast of Luzon to th6 island of Polillo,
and returned by way of Lagima de Bay to Manila.

Death of Legaspi. — He arrived in September, 1572, to
find that his grandfather and commander, Legaspi, had
died a month before (August 20, 1572). After seven
years of labor the conqueror of difficulties was dead, but
almost the entire archipelago had been added to the crown
of Spain. Three hundred years of Spanish dominion se-
cured little more territory than that traversed and pacified

Conquista de la Isla de Imzon, p. 24.

138

THE PHILIPPINES.

by the conquerors of these early years. In spite of their
slender forces, the daring of the Spaniards induced them
to follow a policy of widely extending their power, effect-
ing settlements, and enforcing submission wherever rich
coasts and the gathering of population attracted them.

Within a single year's
time most of the coast
country of Luzon had
been traversed, hnport-
ant positions seized, and
the inhabitants por-
tioned out in encomien-
das. On the death of
Legaspi, the command
fell to Guido de Lave-
zares.

Reasons for this Easy
Conquest of the Philip-
pines. — The explana-
tion of how so small a
number of Europeans
could so rapidly and suc-
cessfully reduce to sub-
jection the inhabitants
of a territory like thePhil-
ippines, separated into
so many different islands, is to be found in several things.
First. — The expedition had a great leader, one of those
knights combining sagacity with resolution, who glorify
the brief period when Spanish prestige was highest. No
policy could ever be successful in the Philippines which
did not depend for its strength upon giving a measure of
satisfaction to the Filipino people. Legaspi did this. He

Legaspi Monument, Luneta.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 139

appears to have won the native datos, treating them with
consideration, and holding out to them the expectations
of a better and more prosperous era, which the sovereignty
of the Spaniard would bring. Almost from the beginning,
the natives of an island already reduced flocked to his
standard to assist in the conquest of another. The small
forces of the Spanish soldiers were augmented by hun-
dreds of Filipino allies.

Second. — Toother reason is found in the wonderful
courage and great fighting power of the Spanish soldier.
Each man, splendidly armored and weaponed, deadly with
either sword or spear, carrying in addition the arquebus,
the most efficient firearm of the time, was equal in combat
to many natives who might press upon him with their
naked bodies and inferior weapons.

Third. — Legaspi was extremely fortunate in his cap-
tains, who included such old campaigners as the field-
marshal Martin de Goiti, who had been to the Philippines
before with Villalobos, and such gallant youths as Salcedo,
one of the most attractive military figures in aU Spanish
history.

Fourth. — In considering this Spanish conquest, we
must understand that the islands were far more sparsely
inhabited than they are to-day. The Bisayan islands,
the rich Camarines, the island of Luzon, had, in Legaspi's
time, only a small fraction of their present great popula-
tions. This population was not only small, but it was also
extremely disunited. Not only were the great tribes sep-
arated by the differences of language, but, as we have
already seen, each tiny community was practically inde-
pendent, and the power of a dato very limited. There
were no great princes, with large forces of fighting re-
tainers whom they could call to arms, such as the Portu-

140 THE PHILIPPINES.

guese had encountered among the Malays south in the
Moluccas.

Fifth. — But certainly one of the greatest factors in the
yielding of the Filipino to the Spaniard was the preaching
of the missionary friars. No man is so strong with an
unenlightened and barbarous race as he who claims power
from God. And the preaching of the CathoUc faith, with
its impressive and dramatic services, its holy sacraments,
its power to arrest the attention and to admit at once
the rude mind into the circle of its ministry, won the
heart of the Fihpino. Without doubt he was ready and
eager for a loftier and truer religious belief and ceremo-
nial. There was no powerful native priesthood to oppose
the introduction of Christianity. The preaching of the
faith and the baptism of converts proceeded almost as
rapidly as the marching of Salcedo's soldiers.

The Dangers of the Spanish Occupation. — Silch condi-
tions assured the success of the Spanish occupation, pro-
vided the small colony could be protected from outside
attacks. But even from the beginning the position of
this little band of conquerors was perilous. Their numbers
were small and of necessity much scattered, and their
only source of succor lay thousands of miles away, across
the greatest body of water on the earth, in a land itself a
colony newly wrested from the hand of the Indian. Across
the narrow waters of the China Sea, only a few days'
distant, even in the slow-sailing junks, lay the teeming
shores of the most populous country in the world, in those
days not averse to foreign conquest.

Attempt of the Chinese under Limahong to Capture
Manila. — Activity of the Southern Chinese. — It was
from the Chinese that the first heavy blow fell. The
southeastern coast of China, comprising the provinces of

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1505-1600. 141

Kwangtung and Fukien, has always exhibited a restless-
ness and passion for emigration not displayed by other
parts of the country. From these two provinces, through
the ports of Amoy and Canton, have gone those Chinese
traders and cooUes to be found in every part of the East
and many other countries of the world. Two hundred
years before the arrival of the Spaniards, Chinese junks
traversed the straits and seas and visited regularly the
coast of Mindanao.

Limahong's Expedition to the Philippines. — This
coast of China has always been notorious for its piracy.
The distance of the capital at Peking and the weakness of
the provincial viceroys have made impossible its suppres-
sion. It was one of these bold filibusters of the China Sea,
called Limahong, who two years after the death of Legaspi
attempted the conquest of the Philippines. The strong-
hold of this corsair was the island of Pehon, where he
fortified himself and developed his power.

Here, reports of the prosperous condition of Manila
reached him, and he prepared a fleet of sixty-two war-
junks, with four thousand soldiers and sailors. The ac-
counts even state that a large number of women and
artisans were taken on board to form the nucleus of the
settlement, as soon as the Spaniards should be destroyed.
In the latter part of November, 1574, this powerful fleet
came sweeping down the western coast of Luzon and on
the 29th gathered in the httle harbor of Mariveles, at the
entrance to Manila Bay. Eight miles south of Manila is
the town of Paranaque, on an estuary which affords a
good landing-place for boats entering from the bay. Here
on the night following, Limahong put ashore six hundred
men, under one of his generals, Sioco, who was a Japanese.

The Attach upon Manila. — From here they marched

142 THE PHILIPPINES.

rapidly up the beach and fell furiously upon the city.
Almost their first victim was the field-marshal Goiti. The
fort of Manila was at this date a weak affair, without
ditches or escarpment, and it was here that the struggle
took place. The Spaniards, although greatly outnum-
bered, were able to drive back the Chinese; but they
themselves lost heavily. Limahong now sent ashore heavy
reinforcements, and prepared to overwhelm the garrison.
The Spaniards were saved from defeat by the timely ar-
rival of Salcedo with fifty musketeers. From his station
at Vigan he had seen the sails of Limahong's fleet, cruising
southward along the Luzon coast, and, suspecting that so
great an expedition could have no other purpose than the
capture of Manila, he embarked in seven small boats, and
reached the city in six days, just in time to participate in
the furious battle between the Spaniards and the entire
forces of the Chinese pirate. The result was the complete
defeat of the Chinese, who were driven back upon their
boats at Paranaque.

The Result of Limahong's Expedition. — Although
defeated in his attack on Manila, Limahong was yet de-
termined on a settlement in Luzon, and, sailing northward,
he landed in Pangasinan and began constructing fortifi-
cations at the mouth of the river Lingayen. The Span-
iards did not wait for him to strengthen himself and to dis-
pute with them afresh for the possession of the island, but
organized in March aji expedition of two hundred and fifty
Spaniards and fifteen hundred Filipinos under Salcedo.
They landed suddenly in the Gulf of Lingayen, burned
the entire fleet of the Chinese, and scattered a part of the
forces in the surroimding movmtains. The rest, though,
hemmed in by the Spaniards, were able to construct small
boats, in which they escaped from the islands.

COXQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 143

Thus ended this formidable attack, which threatened
for a time to overthrow the power of Spain in the East.
It was the beginning, however, of important relations
with China. Before Limahong's escape a junk arrived
from the viceroy of Fukien, petitioning for the delivery of
the Chinese pirate. Two Augustinian friars accompanied
his junk back to China, eager for such great fields of
missionary conquest. They carried letters from Lavezares
inviting Chinese friendship and intercourse.

Beginning of a New Period of Conquest. — In the spring
of 1576, Salcedo died at Vigan, at the age of twenty-
seven. With his death may be said to close the first
period of the history in the Philippines, — that of the
Conquest, extending from 1565 to 1576. For the next
twenty-five years the ambitions of the Spaniards were not
content with the exploration of this archipelago, but there
were greater and more striking conquests, to which the
minds of both soldier and priest aspired.

Despite the settlement with Portugal, the rich Spice
Islands to the south still attracted them, and there
were soon revealed the fertile coasts of Siam and
Cambodia, the great empire of China, the beautiful
island of Formosa, and the Japanese archipelago. These,
with their great populations and wealth, were more allur-
ing fields than the poor and sparsely populated coasts
of the Philippines. So, for the next quarter of a cen-
tury, the policy of the Spaniards in the Philippines was
not so much to develop these islands themselves, as to
make them a center for the commercial and spiritual
conquest of the Orient.'

' See the letter of Bishop Salazar to the king, explaining his mo-
tives in coming to the Philippines. Retana, Bihlioteca FiUpina, vol.
I.; Relacion, 1583, p. 4,

144 THE PHILIPPINES.

A Treaty with the Chinese. — The new governor arrived
in the Islands in August, 1575. He was Dr. Francisco
La-Sande. In October there returned the ambassadors
who had been sent to China by Lavezares. The viceroy
of Fukien had received them with much ceremony. He
had not permitted the friars to remain, but had forwarded
the governor's letter to the Chinese emperor. In Febru-
ary following came a Chinese embassy, granting a port of
the empire with which the Spaniards could trade. This
port, probably, was Amoy, which continued to be the
chief port of communication with China to the present
day.

It was undoubtedly commerce and not the mission-
aries that the Chinese desired. Two Augustinians at-
tempted to return with this embassy to China, but the
Chinese on leaving the harbor of Manila landed on the
coast of Zambales, where they whipped the missionaries,
killed their servants and interpreter, and left the friars
bound to trees, whence they were rescued by a small
party of Spaniards who happened to pass that way.

Sir Francis Drake's Noted Voyage. — The year 1577 is
notable for the appearance in the East of the great Eng-
lish sea-captain, freebooter, and naval hero, Francis Drake. '
England and Spain, at this moment, while not actually at
war, were rapidly approaching the conflict which made
them for centuries traditional enemies. Spain was the
champion of Roman ecclesiasticism.- Her king, Philip the
Second, was not only a cruel bigot, but a politician of
sweeping ambition. His schemes included the conquest
of France and England, the extermination of Protestant-
ism, and the subjection of Europe to his own and the
Roman authority.

The English people scented the danger from afar, and

• CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 145

while the two courts nominally maintained peace, the dar-
ing seamen of. British Devon were quietly putting to sea
in their swift and terrible vessels, for the crippling of
the Spanish power. The history of naval warfare records
no more reckless adventures than those of the English
mariners during this period. Audacity could not rise
higher.

Drake's is the most famous and romantic figure of
them all. In the year 1577, he sailed from England
with the avowed purpose of sweeping the Spanish Main.
He passed the Straits of Magellan, and came up the
western coast of South America, despoiling the Spanish
shipping from Valparaiso to Panama. Thence he came
on across the Pacific, touched the coast of Mindanao, and
turned south to the Moluccas.

The Portuguese had nominally annexed the Moluccas
in 1522, but at the time of Drake's visit they had been
driven from Ternate, though still holding Tidor. Drake
entered into friendly relations with the sultan of Ternate,
and secured a cargo of cloves. From here he sailed boldly
homeward, daring the Portuguese fleets, as he had defied
the Spanish, and by way of Good Hope returned to
England, his fleet the first after Magellan's to circum-
navigate the globe.

A Spanish Expedition to Borneo. — The appearance of
Drake in the Moluccas roused La-Sande to ambitious
action. The attraction of the southern archipelagoes was
overpowering, and at this moment the opportunity seemed
to open to the governor to force southward his power.
One of the Malay kings of Borneo, Sirela, arrived in Ma-
nila, petitioning aid against his brother, and promising to
acknowledge the sovereignty of the king of Spain over the
island of Borneo. La-Sande went in person to restore

146 THE PHILIPPINES.

this chieftain to power. He had a fleet of galleys and
frigates, and, according to Padre Gaspar de»San Augustin,
more than fifteen hundred Filipino bowmen from Pangasi-
nan, Cagayan, and the Bisayas accompanied the expedition.
He landed on the coast of Borneo, destroyed the fleet of
praos and the city of the usurper, and endeavored to se-
cure Sirela in his principality. Sickness among his fleet
and the lack of provisions forced him to return to Manila.

The First Attack upon the MoroS of Jolo. — On his re-
turn he sent an officer against the island of Jolo. This
officer forced the Joloanos to recognize his power, and
from there he passed to the island of Mindanao, where he
further enforced obedience upon the natives. This was
the beginning of the Spanish expeditions against the Mo-
ros, which had the effect of arousing in these Mohamme-
dan pirates such terrible retaliatory vengeance. Under
La-Sande the conquest of the Camarines was completed by
Captain Juan Chaves and the city of Nueva Caceres
founded.

The Appointment of Governor Ronquillo. — It was the
uniform policy of the Spanish government to limit the
term of office of the governor to a short period of years.
This was one of the futile provisions by which Spain at-
tempted to control both the ambition and the avarice of
her colonial captains. But Don Gonzalo Ronquillo had
granted to him the governorship of the Philippines for
life, on the condition of his raising and equipping a force
of six hundred in Spain, largely at his own expense, for
the better protection and pacification of the archipelago.
This Ronquillo did, bringing his expedition by way of
Panama. He arrived in April, 1580, and although he
died at the end of three years, his rule came at an impor-
tant time.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, ir,GC,-lGOO. 147

The Spanish and the Portuguese Colonies Combined. —

In 1580, Philip II. conquered and annexed to Spain the
kingdom of Portugal, and with Portugal came necessarily
to the Spanish crown those rich eastern colonies which
the valor of Da Gama and Albuquerque had won. Portu-
gal rewon her independence in 1640, but for years Manila
was the capital of a colonial empire, extending from Goa
in India to Formosa.

Events of Ronquillo's Rule. — Ronquillo, under orders
from the crown, entered into correspondence with the
captain of the Portuguese fortress on the island of Tidor,
and the captain of Tidor petitioned Ronquillo for assist-
ance in reconquering the tempting island of Ternate.
Ronquillo sent south a considerable expedition, but after,
arriving in the Moluccas the disease of beri-beri in the
Spanish camp defeated the undertaking. Ronquillo also
sent a small armada to the coasts of Borneo and Malacca,
where a limited amount of pepper was obtained.

The few years of Ronquillo's reign were in other ways
important. A colony of Spaniards was established at
Oton, on the island of Panay, which was given the name
of Ar^valo (Iloilo). And. under Ronquillo was pacified
for the first time the great valley of the Cagayan. At the
mouth of the river a Japanese adventurer, Tayfusa, or
Tayzufu, had established himself and was attempting the
subjugation of this important part of northern Luzon.
Ronquillo sent against him Captain Carreon, who expelled
the intruder and established on the present site of Lao-lo
the city of Nueva Segovia. Two friars accompanied this
expedition and the occupation of this valley by the Span-
iards was made permanent.

The First Conflicts between the Church and the State. —
In March, 1581, there arrived the first Bishop of Manila,

148

THE PHILIPPINES.

Domingo de Salazar. Almost immediately began those

conflicts between the spiritual and civil

authorities, and between bishop and the

regular orders, which have filled to such

an extent the history of the islands. The

bishop was one of those authoritative,

ambitious, and arrogant characters, so

typical in the history of the Church. It

was largely due to his protests against

the autocratic power of the governor that

the king was induced to appoint the first

Audiencia. The character and power of

these courts have already been explained.

The president and judges arrived the year

following the death of Ronquillo, and the

president.
Dr. Santi-
ago deVera,
became act-
ing gover-
nor during the succeeding
five years.

In 1587, the first Domini-
cans, fifteen in number, ar-
rived, and founded their
celebrated mission, La Pro-
vincia del Santisimo Ro-

Malay Shield.

sario.

Increasing Strength of the Malays. — De Vera continued
the policy of his predecessors and another fruitless attack
was made on Ternate in 1585. The power of the Malay
people was increasing, while that of the Europeans was
decreasing. The sultans had expelled their foreign masters,

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600.

149

and neither Spaniard nor Portuguese were able to effect
the conquest of the Moluccas. There were uprisings of
the natives in Manila and in Cagayan and Ilocos.

The Decree of 1589. — Affairs in the Islands did not
yet, however, suit Bishop Salazar, and as the representa-
tive of both governor and bishop, the Jesuit, Alonso
Sanchez, was dispatched in 1586
to lay the needs of the colony
before the king. Philip was ap-
parently impressed with the
, necessity of putting the gov-
ernment of the Islands upon a
better adminstrative basis. To
this end he published the im-
portant decree of 1589.

The governor now became a
paid officer of the crown, at a
salary of ten thousand ducats.
For the proper protection of
the colony and the conquest of
the Moluccas, a regular force
of four hundred soldiers ac-
companied the governor. His
powers were extended to those of
an actual viceregent of the king,
and the Audiencia was abolished.
The man selected to occupy this important post was Don
Gomez Perez Dasmarinas, who arrived with the new con-
stitution in May, 1590. So great was the chagrin of the
bishop at the abolition of the Audiencia and the increase
of the governor's power, that he himself set out for Spain
to lay his wishes before the court.

The Missionary Efforts of the Friars. — Twenty-four

150 THE PHILIPPINES.

Franciscans came with Dasmarinas and the presence of
the three orders necessitated the partition of the Islands
among them. The. keenest rivalry and jealousy existed
among them over the prosecution of missions in still more
foreign lands. To the missionaries of this age it seemed
a possible thing to convert the great and conservative
nations of China and Japan to the Western religion.

In the month of Dasmarinas' arrival, a company of
Dominicans attempted to found a mission in China, and,
an embassy coming from Japan to demand vassalage from
the Philippines, four of the newly arrived Franciscans ac-
companied the Japanese on their return.

A year later, in 1592, another embassy from the king
of Cambodia arrived, bringing gifts that included two ele-
phants, and petitioning for succor against the king of Siam.
This was the beginning of an alliance between Cambodia
and the Philippines which lasted for many years, and
' which occasioned frequent military aid and many efforts
to convert that country.

Death of Dasmarinas. — But the center of Dasmarinas'
ambitions was the effective conquest of the East Indies
and the extension of Spanish power and his own rule
through the Moluccas. With this end in view, for three
years he made preparations. For months the shores were
lined with the yards of the shipbuilders, and the great
forests of Bulacan fell before the axes of the Indians.
More than two hundred vessels, "galeras," "galeotas,"
and "virrayes," were built, and assembled at Cavite.

In the fall of 1593, the expedition, consisting of over
nine hundred Spaniards, Filipino bowmen and rowers,
was ready. Many of the Filipinos, procured to row these
boats, were said to have been slaves, purchased through
the Indian chiefs by the Spanish encomenderos. The

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600. 151

governor sent forward this great fleet under the command
of his son, Don Luis, and in the month of October he him-
self set sail in a galley with Chinese rowers. But on the
night of the second day, while off the island of Maricaban,
the Chinese oarsmen rose against the Spaniards, of whom
there were about forty on the ship, and killed almost the
entire number, including the governor. They then es-
caped in the boat to the Ilocos coast and thence to China.

The murder of this active and illustrious general was a
determining blow to the ambitious projects for the con-
quest of the East Indies. Among other papers which
Dasmarifias brought from Spain was a royal cedula giving
him power to nominate his successor, who proved to be
his son, Don Luis, who after some difficulty succeeded
temporarily to his father's position.

Arrival of the Jesuits. — In June, 1595, there arrived
Don Antonio de Morga, who had been appointed assessor
and lieutenant-governor of the Islands, to succeed Don
Luis. With Morga came the first Jesuit missionaries. He
was also the bearer of an order granting to the Jesuits the
exclusive privilege of conducting missions in China and
Japan. The other orders were forbidden to pass outside
the Islands.

An attempt to Colonize Mindanao. — In the year 1596,
the Captain Rodriguez de Figueroa received the title of
governor of Mindanao, with exclusive right to colonize the
island for "the space of two lives." He left Iloilo in
April with 214 Spaniards, two Jesuit priests, and many
natives. They landed in the Rio Grande of Mindanao,
where the defiant dato, Silonga, fortified himself and re-
sisted them. Almost immediately Figueroa rashly ven-
tured on shore and was killed by Moros. Reinforcements
were sent under Don Juan Ronquillo, who, after nearly

162 THE PHILIPPINES.

bringing the datos to submission, abandoned all he had
gained. The Spaniards burned their forts on the Rio
Grande and retired to Caldera, near Zamboanga, where
they built a presidio.

Death of Franciscans in Japan. — The new governor,
Don Francisco Tello'de Guzman, arrived on June 1, 1596.
He had previously been treasurer of the Casa de Contrata^
cion in Seville. Soon after his arrival an important and
serious tragedy occurred in Japan. The ship for Acapulco
went ashore on the Japanese coast and its rich cargo was
seized by the feudal prince where the vessel sought assist-
ance. The Franciscans had already missions in these
islands, and a quarrel existed between them and the
Portuguese Jesuits over this missionary field. The latter
succeeded in prejudicing the Japanese court against the
Franciscans, and when they injudiciously pressed for the
return of the property of the wrecked galleon, "San
Felipe," the emperor, greedy for the rich plunder, and
exasperated by their preaching, met their petitions with
the sentence of death. They were horribly crucified at
the port of Nagasaki, February 5, 1597. This emperor
was the proud and cruel ruler, Taycosama. He was
planning the conquest of the Philippines themselves,
when death ended his plans.

The First Archbishop in the Philippines. — Meanwhile
the efforts of Salazar at the Spanish court had effected
further important changes for the Islands. The reestab-
lishment of the Royal Audiencia was ordered, and his own
position was elevated to that of archbishop, with the
three episcopal sees of Ilocos, Cebu, and the Camarines.
He did not Uve to assume this office, and the first arch-
bishop of the Philippines was Ignacio Santibaiiez, who also
died three months after his arrival, on May 28, 1598.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1B65-1600. 153

Reestablishment of the Audiencia. — The Audiencia was
reestablished with great pomp and ceremony. The royal
seal was borne on a magnificently caparisoned horse to the
cathedral, where a Te Deum was chanted, and then to
the Casas Reales, where was inaugurated the famous court
that continued without interruption down to the end of
Spanish rule. Dr. Morga was one of the first oidores, and
the earliest judicial record which can now be found in the
archives of this coiu-t is a sentence bearing his signatm-e.

The Rise of Moro Piracy. — The last years of De Guz-
man's governorship were filled with troubles ominous for
the future of the Islands. The presidio of Caldera was
destroyed by the Moros. Following this victory, in the
year 1599, the Moros of Jolo and Maguindanao equipped
a piratical fleet of fifty caracoas, and swept the coasts of
the Bisayas. Cebu, Negros, and Panay were ravaged,
their towns burned, and their inhabitants carried off as
slaves.

The following year saw the return of a larger and still
more dreadful expedition. The people of Panay aban-
doned their towns and fled into the mountains, under the
belief that these terrible attacks had been inspired by the
Spaniards. To check these pirates, Juan Gallinato, with
a force of two himdred Spaniards, was sent against Jolo,
but, hke so many expeditions that followed his, he ac-
compUshed nothing. The inabihty of the Spaniards
was now revealed and the era of Moro piracy had be-
gun. "From this time until the present day" (about
the year 1800), wrote Zuniga, "these Moros have not
ceased to infest our colonies; innumerable are the Indians
they have captured, the towns they have looted, the
rancherias they have destroyed, the vessels they have
taken. It seems as if God has preserved them for

154

THE PHILIPPINES.

vengeance on the Spaniards that they have not been
able to subject them in two hundred years, in spite
of the expeditions sent against them, the armaments
sent almost very year to pursue them. In a very
little while we conquered all the islands of the Philip-
pines; but the little island of Jolo, a part of Mindanao,

Moro Piao.

and other islands near by we have not been able to
subjugate to this day." '

Battle at Mariveles with the Dutch. — In October, 1600,
two Dutch vessels appeared in the Islands; it was the
famous expedition of the Dutch admiral. Van Noort.
They had come through the Straits of Magellan, on a voy-
age around the world. The Dutch were in great need of
provisions. As they were in their great enemy's colony,
they captured and sunk several boats, Spanish and Chi-

' Zuiiiga: Historia de Fib'pinas, pp. 195, 196.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, lSeS-1600. 156

nese, bound for Manila with rice, poultry, palm-wine, and
other stores of food. At Mariveles, a Japanese vessel
from Japan was overhauled. Meanwhile in Manila great
excitement and activity prevailed. The Spaniards fitted
up two galleons and the "Oidor" Morga himself took com-
mand with a large crew of fighting men.

On November 14, they attacked the Dutch, whose
crews were greatly reduced to only eighty men on both
ships. The vessel commanded by Morga ran down the
flagship of Van Noort, and for hours the ships lay side
by side while a hand-to-hand fight raged on the deck and
in the hold. The ships taking fire, Morga disengaged
his ship, which was so badly shattered that it sank, with
great loss of life; but Morga and some others reached the
little island of Fortuna. Van Noort was able to extin-
guish the fire on his vessel, and escape from the Islands,
lie eventually reached Holland. His smaller vessel was
captured with its crew of twenty-five men, who were all
hung at Cavite.*

Other Troubles of the Spanish. — In the year 1600, two
ships sailed for Acapulco, but one went down off the
Catanduanes and the other was shipwrecked on the La-
drones. " On top of all other misfortunes, Manila suffered,
in the last months of this government, a terrible earth-
quake, which destroyed many houses and the church of
the Jesuits." ^

The Moros, the Dutch, anxieties and losses by sea, the visi-
tations of God, — how much of the history of the seventeenth
century in the Philippines is filled with these four things!

' Both Van Noort and Morga have left us accounts of this sea-fight, the
former in his journal, Description of the Failsome Voyage Made Bound
the World, and the latter in his famous, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas.

^ Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 199.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE PHILIPPINES THREE HUNDRED
YEARS AGO.

Condition of the Archipelago at the Beginning of the
Seventeenth Century. — The Spanish Rule Completely
Established. — At the close of the sixteenth century the
Spaniards had been in possession of the Phihppines for a
generation. In these thirty-five years the most striking
of all the results of the long period of Spanish occupation
were accomplished. The work of these first soldiers and
missionaries established the limits and character of Span-
ish rule as it was to remain for 250 years. Into this first
third of a century the Spaniard crowded all his heroic
feats of arms, exploration, and conversion. Thereafter,
down to 1850, new fields were explored, and only a few
new tribes Christianized.

The survey of the archipelago given by Morga soon after
1600 reads like a narrative of approximately modern
conditions. It reveals to us how great had been the
activities of the early Spaniard and how small the achieve-
ments of his countrymen after the seventeenth century
began. All of the large islands, except Paragua and the
Moro country, were, in that day, under encomiendas, their
inhabitants paying tributes and for the most part pro-
fessing the Catholic faith.

The smaller groups and islets were almost as thor-
oughly exploited. Even of the little Catanduanes, lying
off the Pacific coast of Luzon, Morga could say, "They
are well populated with natives, — a good race, all en-

156

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 157

comended to Spaniards, with doctrine and churches, and
an alcalde-mayor, who does justice among them."

He says of the Babuyanes at the extreme north of the
archipelago, " They are not encomended, nor is tribute col-
lected among them, nor are there Spaniards among them,
because they are of little reason and politeness, and there
have neither been Christians made among them nor have
they justices." They continued in this condition until a
few years before the end of Spanish rule. In 1591, how-
ever, the Babuyanes had been given in encomienda to
Esteban de la Serna and Francisco Castillo. They are
put as having two thousand inhabitants and five hundred
" tributantes," but all unsubdued ("todos algados").

On some islands the hold of the Spaniards was more ex-
tensive in Morga's day than at a later time. Then the is-
land of Mindoro was regarded as important, and in the
early years and decades of Spanish power appears to have
been populous along the coasts. Later it was desolated
by the Moro pirates and long remained wild and almost
uninhabited except by a shifting population from the
mainland of Luzon.

The Encomiendas. — The first vessels that followed the
expedition of Legaspi had brought orders from the king that
the Islands should be settled, and divided in encomiendas
to those who had conquered and won them.' On this in-
struction, Legaspi had given the Filipinos in encomienda to
his captains and soldiers as fast as the conquest proceeded.

We are fortunate to have a review of these encomiendas,
made in 1591, about twenty-five years after the system
was introduced into the Islands.^ There were then 267

' Relacion de la Conquista de Luzon, 1572, p. Ij.
^ Relacion de las Encomiendas, existentes en Filipinas, Retana,
Archive del Biblidfilo Filipino, vol. IV.

160 THE PHILIPPINES.

encomiendas in the Philippines, of which thirty-one were
of the king, and the remainder of private persons.

Population under the Encomiendas- — From the enu-
meration of these encomiendas, we learn that the most
populous parts of the archipelago were La Laguna, with
24,000 tributantes -and 97,000 inhabitants, and the Cam-
arines, which included all the Bicol territory, and the Ca-
tanduanes, where there were 21,670 tributantes and a
population of over 86,000. In the vicinity of Manila and
Tondo, which included Cavite and Marigondon, the south
shore of the bay, and Pasig and Taguig, there were col-
lected 9,410 tributes, and the population was estimated at
about 30,000. In Ilocos were reported 17,130 tributes
and 78,520 souls.

The entire valley of the Cagayan had been divided
among the soldiers of the command which had effected the
conquest. In the list of encomiendas a few can be recog-
nized, such as Yguig and Tuguegarao, but most of the
names are not to be found on maps of to-day. Most of
the inhabitants were reported to be "rebelhous" (algados),
and some were apparently the same wild tribes which
still occupy all of this water-shed, except the very banlis
of the river; but none the less had the Spaniards divided
them off into "repartimentos." One soldier had even
taken as an encomienda the inhabitants of the upper
waters of the river, a region which is called in the Relacion
" Pugao," with little doubt the habitat of the same Igor-
rote tribe as the Ipugao, who still dwell in these moim-
tains. The upper valley of the Magat, or Nueva Vizcaya,
does not appear to have been occupied and probably was
not until the missions of the eighteenth century.

The population among the Bisayan islands was quite
surprisingly small, considering its present proportions.

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 161

Masbate, for example, had but 1,600 souls; Burias, a like
number- ; the whole central group, leaving out Panay, only
15,833 tributes, or about 35,000 souls. There was a single
encomienda in Butiian, Mindanao, and another on the
Caraga coast. There were a thousand tributes collected
in the encomienda of Cuyo, and fifteen hundred in Cala-
mianes, which, says the Relacion, included " los negrillos,"
probably the mixed Negrito population of northern
Palawan.

The entire population under encomiendas is set down as
166,903 tributes, or 667,612 souls. This is, so far as
known, the earliest enumeration of the population of the
Philippines. Barring the Igorrotes of northern Luzon
and the Moros and other tribes of Mindanao, it is a fair
estimate of the number of the Filipino people three hun-
dred years ago.

It will be noticed that the numbers assigned to single
encomenderos in the Philippines were large. In America
the number was limited. As early as 1512, King Ferdi-
nand had forbidden any single person, of whatever rank
or grade, to hold more than three hundred Indians on one
island.' But in the Phihppines, a thousand or twelve
hundred "tributantes" were frequently held by a single
Spaniard.

Condition of the Filipinos under the Encomiendas. —
Frequent Revolts. — That the Filipinos on many of these
islands bitterly resented their condition is evidenced by
the frequent uprisings and rebellions. The encomenderos
were often extortionate and cruel, and absolutely heedless
of the restrictions and obligations imposed upon them by
the Laws of the Indies. Occasionally a new governor,

' Ordenanzas . . . para la Reparticion de -los Indios de la Isla Es-
panola, in Documentos Ineditas, vol. I., p. 236.

162 THE PHILIPPINES.

under the first impulse of instructions from Mexico or
Spain, did something to correct abuses. Revolts were
almost continuous during the year 1583, and the condition
of the natives very bad, many encomenderos regarding
them and treating them almost as slaves, and keeping
them at labor to the destruction of their own crops and
the misery of their famiUes. Gov. Santiago de Vera
reached the Islands the following year and made a charac-
teristic attempt to improve the system, which is thus
related by Zuiiiga: —

" As soon as he had taken possession of the government,
he studied to put into effect the orders which he brought
from the king, to punish certain encomenderos, who had
abused the favor they had received in being given en-
comiendas, whereby he deposed Bartolome de Ledesma,
encomendero of Abuyo (Leyte), and others of those most
culpable, and punished the others in proportion to the
offenses which they had committed, and which had been
proven.

" In the following year of 1585, he sent Juan de Morones
and Pablo de Lima, with a well equipped squadron, to
the Moluccas, which adventure was as unfortunate as
those that had preceded it, and they returned to Manila
without having been able to take the fortress of Ternate.
The governor felt it very deeply that the expedition had
failed, and wished to send another armada in accordance
with the orders which the king had given him; but he
could not execute this because the troops from New Spain
did not arrive, and because of the Indians, who lost no
occasion which presented itself to shake off the yoke of
the Spaniards.

" The Pampangos and many inhabitants of Manila con-
federated with the Moros of Borneo, who had come for

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 163

trade, and plotted to enter the city by night, set it on
fire, and, in the confusion of the conflagration, slay all
the Spaniards. This conspiracy was discovered through
an Indian woman, who was married to a Spanish soldier,
and measures to meet the conspiracy were taken, before
the mine exploded, many being seized and suffering ex-
emplary punishment.

" The islands of Samar, Ybabao, and Leyte were also in
disturbance, and the encomendero of Dagami, pueblo of
Leyte, was in peril of losing his life, because the Indians
were incensed by his thievings in the collection of tribute,
which was paid in wax, and which he compelled them to
have weighed with a steelyard which he had made double
the legal amount, and wanted to kill him. They would
have done so if he had not escaped into the mountains
and afterwards passed by a banca to the island of Cebu.
The governor sent Captain Lorenzo de la Mota to pacify
these disturbances; he made some punishments, and with
these everything quieted down." '

Three years later, however, the natives of Leyte were
again in revolt. In 1589 Cagayan rose and killed many
Spaniards. The revolt seems to have spread from here to
the town of Dingras, Ilocos, where the natives rose against
the collectors of tribute, and slew six Spaniards of the
pueblo of Fernandina. (Zuiiiga, Historia de Filipinas,
p. 165.) '

Effects of the Spanish Government. — The Spanish oc-
cupation had brought ruin and misery to some parts of

' Historia de Filipinas, p. 157, et sq.

' Among other documents, which throw a most unfavorable light
upon the condition of the Filipinos under the encomiendas, is the
letter to the king from Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop of the
Philippines, which describes the conditions about 1583.

164 THE PHILIPPINES.

the country. Salazar describes with bitterness the evil
condition of the Filipinos. In the rich fields of Bulacan
and Pampanga, great gangs of laborers had been im-
pressed, felling the forests for the construction of the
Spanish fleets and manning these fleets at the oars, on
voyages which took them for four and six months from
their homes. The governor, Don Gonzalez de Ronquillo,
had forced many Indians of Pampanga into the mines of
Ilocos, taking them from the sowing of their rice. Many
had died in the mines and the rest returned so enfeebled
that they could not plant. - Hunger and famine had de-
scended upon Pampanga, and on the encomienda of Guido
de Lavazares over a thousand had died from starvation.'

The Taxes. — The taxes were another source of abuse.
Theoretically, the tax upon Indians was limited to the
" tributo," the sum of eight reales (about one dollar) yearly
from the heads of all families, payable either in gold or in
produce of the district. But in fixing the prices of these
commodities there was much extortion, the encomenderos
delaying the collection of the tribute until the season of
scarcity, when prices were high, but insisting then on the
same amount as at harvest-time.

The principal, who occupied the place of the former
dato, or "maharlica," like the gobernadorcillo of recent
times, was responsible for the collecting of the tribute, and
his lot seems to have been a hard one. " If they do not
give as much as they ask, or do not pay for as many
Indians as they say there are, they abuse the poor prin-
cipal, or throw him into the pillory (cepo de cabeza), be-
cause all the encomenderos, when they go to make col-
lections, take their pillories with them, and there they keep

' Domingo de Salazar, Relacion de las Cosas de las Filipinas, 1583,
p. 5, in Retana Archives, vol. 3,

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 165

him and torment him, until forced to give all they ask.
They^are even said to take the wife and daughter of the
principal, when he can not be found. Many are the prin-
cipales who have died under these torments, according to
reports."

Salazar further states that he has known natives to be
sold into slavery, in default of tribute. Neither did they
impose upon adults alone, but " they collect tribute from
infants, the aged and the slaves, and many do not marry
because of the tribute, and others slay their children." '

Scarcity of Food. — ■ Salazar further charges that the
alcaldes mayores (the alcaldes of provinces), sixteen in
number, were all corrupt, and, though their salaries were
small, they accumulated fortunes. For further enumera-
tion of economic ills, Salazar details how prices had evilly
increased. In the first years of Spanish occupation, food
was abundant. There was no lack of rice, beans, chickens,
pigs, venison, buffalo, fish, cocoanuts, bananas, and other
fruits, wine and honey; and a little money bought much.
A hundred gantas (about three hundred pints) of rice
could then be bought for a toston (a Portuguese coin,
worth about a half -peso), eight to sixteen fowls for a like
amount, a fat pig for from four to six reales. In the
year of his writing (about 1583), products were scarce
and prices exorbitant. Rice had doubled, chickens were
worth a real, a good pig six to eight pesos. Population
had decreased, and whole towns were deserted, their in-
habitants having fled into the hills.

General Improvement under Spanish Rule. — This is one
side of the picture. It probably is overdrawn by the
bishop, who was jealous of the civil authority and who
began the first of those continuous clashes between the

' Eelacion, pp. 13, 14.

166 THE PHILIPPINES.

church and poUtical power in the Philippines. Doubt-
less if we could see the whole character of Spanish rule
in these decades, we should see that the actual condition
of the Filipino had improved and his grade of culture
had arisen. No one can estimate the actual good that
comes to a people in being brought under the power of a
government able to maintain peace and dispense justice.
Taxation is sometimes grievous, corruption without ex-
cuse; but almost anything is better than anarchy.

Before the coming of the Spaniards, it seems unques-
tionable that the Filipinos suffered greatly under two ter-
rible grievances that inflict barbarous society, — in the first
place, warfare, with its murder, pillage, and destruction,
not merely between tribe and tribe, but between town
and town, such as even now prevails in the wild
mountains of northern Luzon, among the primitive Ma-
layan tribes; and in the second place, the weak and poor
man was at the mercy of the strong and rich.

The establishment of Spanish sovereignty had certainly
mitigated, if it did not wholly remedy, these conditions.
" All of these provinces," Morga could write, " are pacified
and are governed from Manila, having alcaldes mayores,
corregidors, and lieutenants, each one of whom governs in
his district or province and dispenses justice. The chief-
tains (principales), who formerly held the other natives in
subjection, no longer have power over them in the manner
which they tyrannically employed, which is not the least
benefit these natives have received in escaping from such
slavery." '

Old Social Order of the Filipinos but Little Disturbed. —
Some governors seem to have done their utmost to im-
prove the condition of the people and to govern thera

' Sucesos de las Fitipinas, p. 3.34.

THREE HUXDRED YEARS AGO. 167

well. Santiago de Vera, as we have seen, even went so
far as to commission the worthy priest. Padre Juan
de Plasencia, to investigate the customs and social organ-
ization of the Filipinos, and to prepare an accoimt of
their laws, that they might be more suitably governed.
This brief code- — for so it is — was distributed to
alcaldes, judges, and encomenderos, with orders to pat-
tern their decisions in accordance with Filipino custom.'

In ordering local affairs, the Spaniards to some extent
left the old social order of the Filipinos undisturbed.
The several social classes were gradually suppressed, and
at the head of each barrio, or small settlement, was
appointed a head, or cabeza de barangay. As these
barangayes were grouped into pueblos, or towns, the
former datos were appointed captains and goberna-
dorcillos.

The Payment of Tribute. — The tribute was introduced
in 1570.^ It was supposed to be eight reales or a peso of
silver for each family. Children under sixteen and those
over sixty were exempt. In 1590 the amount was raised
to ten reales. To this was added a real for the church,
known as "sanctorum," and, on the organization of the
towns, a real for the caja de communidad or municipal
treasury. ' Under the encomiendas the tribute was paid
to the encomenderos, except on the royal encomiendas;
but after two or three generations, as the encomiendas
were suppressed, these collections went directly to the
insular treasury. There was, in addition to the tribute,
a compulsory service of labor on roads, bridges, and

' Las Costumbres de los Tagdloes en Filipinas segun el Padre Pla-
sencia. Madrid, 1892.

^ Blumeutritt: Organization Communale des Indigines des Philip-
pines, traduis de V Allemand, par A. Hugot. 1881.

168 The Philippines.

public works, known as the "corvee," a feudal term, or
perhaps more generally as the "polos y servicios." Those
discharging this enforced labor were called "polistas."

Conversion of the Filipinos to Christianity. — The popu-
lation had been very rapidly Christianized. All accounts
agree that almost no difhculty was encountered in baptiz-
ing the more advanced tribes. "There is not in these
islands a province," says Morga, "which resists conver-
sion and does not desire it." * Indeed, the Islands seem
to have been ripe for the preaching of a higher faith,
either Christian or Mohammedan. For a time these two
great rehgions struggled together in the vicinity of Ma-
nila,^ but at the end of three decades Spanish power
and religion were alike established. Conversion was
delayed ordinarily only by the lack of sufficient numbers
of priests. We have seen that this conversion of the
people was the work of the missionary friars. In 1591
there were 140 in the Islands, but the Relacion de Enco-
miendas calls for 160 more to properly supply the peoples
which had been laid under tribute.

Coming of the Friars. — The Augustinians had been the
first to come, accompanying Legaspi. Then came the
barefooted friars of the Order of Sauit Francis. The first
Jesuits, padres Antonio Sedeno and Alonzo Sanchez, came
with the first bishop of the Islands, Domingo de Salazar,
in 1580. They came apparently without resources. Even
their garments brought from Mexico had rotted on the
voyage. They found a little, poor, narrow house in a
suburb of Manila, called Laguio (probably Concepcion).
"So poorly furnished was it," says Chirino, "that the
same chest which held their books was the table on which

' Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 332.
^ See Salazar's relation on this point.

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 169

they ate. Their food for many days was rice, cooked in
water, without salt or oil or fish or meat or even an egg,
or anything else except that sometimes as a regalo they
enjoyed some salt sardines." ^ After the Jesuits, came, as
we have seen, the friars of the Dominican order, and lastly
the Recollects, or unshod Augustinians.

Division of the Archipelago among the Religious Orders.
— The archipelago was districted among these mission-
ary bands. The Augustinians had many parishes in the
Bisayas, on the Ilocano coast, some in Pangasinan, and all
of those in Pampanga. The Dominicans had parts of
Pangg,sinan and all of the valley of Cagayan. The Fran-
ciscans controlled the Camarines and nearly all of southern
Luzon, and the region of Laguna de Bay. All of these
orders had convents and monasteries both in the city of
Manila and in the country roimd about. The imposing
churches of brick and stone, which now characterize nearly
every pueblo, had not in those early decades been erected;
but Morga tells us that "the churches and monasteries
were of wood, and well built, with furniture and beautiful
ornaments, complete service, crosses,' candlesticks, and
chalices of silver and gold." ^

The First Schools. — Even in these early years there
seem to have been some attempts at the education of the
natives. The friars had schools in reading and writing
for boys, who were also taught to serve in the church, to
sing, to play the organ, the harp, guitar, and other instru-
ments. We must remember, however, that the Filipino
before the arrival of the Spaniard had a written language,
and even in pre-Spanish times there must have been in-
struction given to the child. The type of humble school,

' C;hirino: Relacion, pp. 19, 20.
2 Morga, p. 329.

170 THE PHILIPPINES.

that is found to-day in remote barrioSj conducted by an
old man or woman, on the floor or in the yard of a home,
where the ordinary family occupations are proceeding,
probably does not owe its origin to the Spaniards, but
dates from a period before their arrival. The higher edu-
cation established. by the Spaniards appears to have been
exclusively for the children of Spaniards. In 1601 the
Jesuits, pioneers of the Roman Catholic orders in educa-
tion, established the College of San Jos6.

Establishment of Hospitals. — The city early had nota-
ble foundations of charity. The high mortality which
visited the Spaniards in these islands and the frequency
of diseases early called for the establishment of institu-
tions for the orphan and the invaUd. In Morga's time
there were the orphanages of San Andres and Santa
Potenciana. There was the Royal Hospital, in charge of
three Franciscans, which burned in the conflagration of
1603, but was reconstructed. There was also a Hospital
of Mercy, in charge of Sisters of Charity from Lisbon and
the Portuguese possessions of India.

Close by the Monastery of Saint Francis stood then,
where it stands to-day, the hospital for natives, San Juan
de Dios. It was of royal patronage, but founded by a
friar of the Franciscan order, Juan Clemente. "Here,"
says Morga, " are cured a great number of natives of all
kinds of sicknesses, with much charity and care. It has
a good house and offices of stone, and is administered by
the barefooted religious of Saint Francis. Three priests
are there and four lay-brethren of exemplary life, who,
with the doctors, surgeons, and apothecaries, are so dex-
terous and skilled that they work with their hands mar-
velous cures, both in medicine and surgery." '

' jSucesos de las Filipians, p. 323.

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 171

Mortality among the Spaniards. — Mortality in the Phil-
ippines in these years of conquest was frightfully high.
The waste of life in her colonial adventures, indeed, drained
Spain of her best and most vigorous manhood. In the
famous old English collection of voyages, published by
Hakluyt in 1598, there is printed a captured Spanish let-
ter of the famous sea-captain, Sebastian Biscaino, on the
Philippine trade. Biscaino grieves over the loss of life
which had accompanied the conquest of the Philippines,
and the treacherous climate of the tropics. "The coun-
try is very . unwholesome for us Spaniards. For within
these 20 years, of 14,000 which have gone to the Philip-
pines, there are 13,000 of them dead, and not past 1,000
of them left alive." ^

The Spanish Population. — The Spanish population of
the Islands was always small, — at the beginning of the
seventeenth century certainly not more than two thou-
sand, and probably less later in the century. Morga
divides them into five classes: the prelates and ecclesi-
astics; the encomenderos, colonizers, and conquerors; sol-
diers and officers of war and marine ; merchants and men
of business; and the officers of his Majesty's govern-
ment. "Very few are living now," he says, "of those
first conquistadores who won the land and effected
the conquest with the Adelantado Miguel Lopez de Le-
gaspi." ^

The Largest Cities. — Most of this Spanish population
dwelt in Manila or in the five other cities which the Span-

' The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Trafjiques and Discoveries of
the English Nation, . . by Richard Hakluyt, Master of Artes and
sometime Student of Christ Church in Oxford. Imprinted at London,
1598. Vol. I., p. 560.

^ Svcesos de las Fili-pinas, p. 347.

172 THE PHILIPPINES.

iards had founded in the first three decades of their oc-
cupation. These were as follows : — •

Th& City of IN'ueva Segovia, at the mouth of the
Cagayan, was founded in the governorship of Ronquillo,
when the valley of the Cagayan was first occupied and the
Japanese colonists, who had settled there, were expelled.
It had at the beginning of the seventeenth century two
hundred Spaniards, living in houses of wood. There was
a fort of stone, where some artillery was mounted. Be-
sides the two hundred Spanish inhabitants there were one
hundred regular Spanish soldiers, with their . officers and
the alcalde mayor of the province. Nueva Segovia was
also the seat of a bishopric which included all northern
Luzon. The importance of the then promising city has
long ago disappeared, and the pueblo of Lallo, which marks
its site, is an insignificant native town.

The City of Jfueva Caceres, in the Camarines, was
founded by Governor La-Sande. It, too, was the seat
of a bishopric, and had one himdred Spanish inhabi-
tants.

The Cities of Cebu and Iloilo. — In the Bisayas were
the Cities of the Holy Name of God (Cebu), and on the
island of Panay, Arevalo (or Iloilo). The first maintained
something of the importance attaching to the first Spanish
settlement. It had its stone fort and was also the seat of
a bishopric. It was visited by trading-vessels from the
Moluccas, and by permit of the king enjoyed for a time
the unusual privilege of sending annually a ship loaded
with merchandise to New Spain. Arevalo had about
eighty Spanish inhabitants, and a monastery of the
Augustinians.

The City of Fernandina, or Vigan, which Salcedo
had founded, was nearly without Spanish inhabitants.

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 173

Still, it was the political center of the great Ilocano coast,
and it has held this position to the present day.

Manila. — But all of these cities were far surpassed in
importance by the capital on the banks of the Pasig.
The wisdom of Legaspi's choice had been more than
justified. Manila, at the beginning of the seventeenth
century, was unquestionably the most important Euro-
pean city of the East. As we have already seen, in 1580
Portugal had been annexed by Spain and with her had
come all the Portuguese possessions in India, China, and
Malaysia. After 1610, the Dutch were almost annually
warring for this colonial empire, and Portugal regained
her independence in 1640. But for the first few years of
the seventeenth century, Manila was the political mistress
of an empire that stretched from Goa to Formosa and
embraced all those coveted lands which for a century and
a half had been the desire of European states.

The governor of the Philippines was almost an inde-
pendent king. Nominally, he was subordinate to the
viceroy of Mexico, but practically he waged wars, con-
cluded peaces, and received and sent embassies at his own
discretion. The kingdom of Cambodia was his ally, and
the states of China and Japan were his friends.

The Commercial Imyportance of Manila. — Manila was
also the commercial center of the Far East, and the en-
trepot through which the kingdoms of eastern Asia ex-
changed their wares. Here came great fleets of junks
from China laden with stores. Morga fills nearly two
pages with an enumeration of their merchandise, which
included all manner of silks, brocades, furniture, pearls
and gems, fruits, nuts, tame buffalo, geese, horses and
mules, all kinds of animals, " even to birds in cages, some
of which talk and others sing, and which they make per-

174 THE PHILIPPINES.

form a thousand tricks; there are innumerable other gew-
gaws and knickknacks, which among Spaniards are in
much esteem." '

Each year a fleet of thirty to forty vessels sailed with
the new moon in March. The voyage across the China
Sea, rough with the monsoons, occupied fifteen or twenty
days, and the fleet returned at the end of May" or the
beginning of June. Between October and March there
came, each year, Japanese ships from Nagasaki which
brought wheat, silks, objects of art, and weapons, and
took away from Manila the raw silk of China, gold, deer
horns, woods, honey, wax, palm-wine, and wine of Castile.

From Malacca and India came fleets of the Portuguese
subjects of Spain, with spices, slaves, Negroes and Kafirs,
and the rich productions of Bengal, India, Persia, and
Turkey. From Borneo, too, came the smaller craft of the
Malays, who from their boats sold the fine pahn mats, the
best of which still come from Cagayan de Sulu and Borneo,
slaves, sago, water-pots and glazed earthenware, black
and fine. From Siam and Cambodia also, but less often,
there came trading-ships. Manila was thus a great em-
porium for all the countries of the East, the trade of
which seems to have been conducted largely by and
through the merchants of Manila.

Trade with Mexico and Spain Restricted. — The com-
merce between the Philippines, and Mexico and Spain,
though it was of vast importance, was limited by action of
the crown. It was a coimnerce which apparently ad-
mitted of infinite expansion, but the shortsighted mer-
chants and manufacturers of the Peninsula clamored
against its development, and it was subjected to the
severest limitations. Four galleons were at first main-

' Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 352.

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 175

tained for this trade, which were dispatched two at a
time in successive years from Manila to the port of Aca-
pulco, Mexico. The letter on the Philippine trade, already
quoted, states that these galleons were great ships of six
hundred and eight hundred tons apiece.' They went
" very strong with soldiers," and they carried the annual
mail, reenforcements, and supplies of Mexican silver for
trade with China, which has remained the commercial
currency of the East to the present day. Later the num-
ber of galleons was reduced to one.

The Rich Cargoes of the Galleons. — The track of the
Philippine galleon lay from Luzon northeastward to about
the forty-second degree of latitude, where the westerly
winds prevail, thence nearly straight across the ocean to
Cape Mendocino in northern California, which was dis-
covered and mapped by Biscaino in 1602. Thence the
course lay down the western coast of North America
nearly three thousand miles to the port of Acapulco.

We can imagine how carefully selected and rich in
quality were the merchandises with which these solitary
galleons were freighted, the pick of all the rich stores
which came to Manila. The profits were enormous, —
six and eight hundred per cent. Biscaino wrote that
with two hundred ducats invested in Spanish wares and
some Flemish commodities, he made fourteen himdred
ducats ; but, he added, in 1588 he lost a ship, — robbed
and burned by Englishmen. On the safe arrival of these
ships depended how much of the fortunes of the colony!

Capture of the Galleons. — For generations these gal-
leons were probably the most tempting and romantic
prize that ever aroused the cupidity of privateer. The
first to profit by this rich booty was Thomas Cavendish,

' Laws of the Indies, VIII., 4.5, 46.

176

THE PHILIPPINES.

who in 1584 came through the Straits of Magellan with a
fleet of five vessels. Like Drake before him, he ravaged
the coast of South America and then steered straight
away across the sea to the Moluccas. Here he acquired
information about the rich commerce of the Philippines and
of the yearly voyage of the galleon. Back across the Pa-
cific went the fleet of Cavendish for the coast of California.
In his own narrative he tells how he beat up and

Capture of a Galleon (fiom an old print).

down between Capes San Lucas and Mendocino until the
galleon, heavy with her riches, appeared. She fell into
his hands almost without a fray. She carried one hun-
dred and twenty-two thousand pesos of gold and a great
and rich store of satins, damask, and musk. Cavendish
landed the Spanish on the California coast, burned the
"Santa Anna," and then returned to the Philippines and
made an attack upon the shipyard of Iloilo, but was re-

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 177

pulsed. He sent a letter to the governor at Manila, boast-
ing of his capture, and then sailed for the Cape of Good
Hope and home.

There is an old story that tells how his seaworn ships
came up the Thames, their masts hung with silk and
damask sails. From this time on the venture was less
safe. In 1588 there came to Spain the overwhelming
disaster of her history, — the destruction of the Great
Armada. From this date her power was gone, and her
name was no longer a terror on the seas. English free-
booters controlled the oceans, and in 1610 the Dutch
appeared in the East, never to withdraw.

The City of Manila Three Hundred Years Ago. — We
can hardly close this chapter without some further ref-
erence to the city of Manila as it appeared three hundred
years ago. Morga has fortunately left us a detailed de-
scription from which the following points in the main are
drawn. As we have already seen, Legaspi had laid out
the city on the blackened site of the town and fortress
of the Mohammedan prince, which had been destroyed in
the struggle for occupation. He gave it the same extent
and dimensions that it possesses to this day.

Like other colonial capitals in the Far East, it was
primarily a citadel and refuge from attack. On the
point beween the sea and the river Legaspi had built the
famous and permanent fortress of Santiago. In the time
of the great Adelantado it was probably only a wooden
stockade, but imder the governor Santiago de Vera it was
built up of stone. Cavendish (1587) describes Manila
as "an unwalled town and of no great strength," but
under the improvements and completions made by Das-
marifias about 1590 it assumed much of its present ap-
pearance. Its guns thoroughly commanded the entrance

178 THE PHILIPPINES.

to the river, Pasig and made the approach of hostile boats
from the harbor side impossible.

It is noteworthy, then, that all the assaults that have
been made upon the city, from that of Limahong, to those
of the British in 1763, and of the Americans in 1898,
have been directed against the southern waU by an ad-
vance from Paranaque. Dasmariiias also inclosed the
city with a stone wall, the base from which the present
noble rampart has arisen. It had originally a width of
from seven and a half to nine feet. Of its height no
figure is given. Morga says simply that with its but-
tresses and turrets it was sufficiently high for the purposes
of defense.

Th& Old Fort. — There was a stone fort on the south
side facing Ermita, known as the Fortress of Our Lady of
Guidance; and there were two or more bastions, each with
six pieces of artillery, — St. Andrew's, now a powder mag-
azine at the southeast corner, and S|. Gabriel's, over-
looking the Parian district, where the Chinese were settled.

The three principal gates to the city, with the smaller
wickets and posterns, which opened on the river and sea,
were regularly closed at night by the guard which made
the rounds. At each gate and wicket was a permanent
post of soldiers and artillerists.

The Plaza de Armas adjacent to the fort had its ar-
senal, stores, powder-works, and a foundry for the cast-
ing of guns and artillery. The foimdry, when established
by Ronquillo, was in charge of a Pampangan Indian called
Pandapira.

The Spanish Buildings of the City. — The buildings
of the city, especially the Casas Reales and the churches and
monasteries, had been durably erected of stone. Chirino
claims that the hewing of stone, the burning of lime, and

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 179

the training of native and Chinese artisans for this build-
ing, were the work of the Jesuit father, Sedeno. He him-
self fashioned the first clay tiles and built the first stone
house, and so urged and encouraged others, himself direct-
ing, the building of public works, that the city, which a
little before had been solely of timber and cane, had be-
come one of the best constructed and most beautiful in
the Indies/ He it was also who sought out Chinese
painters and decorators and ornamented the churches with
images and paintings.

Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of
a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and
an equal number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales,"
all occupied by Spaniards ("todos son vivienda y pob-
lacion de los Espanoles")-^

This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or
establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila
numbered at least one hundred and fifty,^ the garrison,
at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish
soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low
Countries, and the official classes.

The Malecon and the Luneta. — It is interesting at
this early date to find mention of the famous recreation
drive, the Paseo de Bagumbayan, now commonly known
as the Malecon and Luneta. "Manila," says our historian,
"has two places of recreation on land; the one, which is
clean and wide, extends from the point called Our Lady
of Guidance for about a league along the sea, and through
the street and village of natives, called Bagumbayan, to

' Relacinn de las Isla-t FiUpinas, chap. V., p. 28, and chap. XTII.
p. 47.

2 Ihid., p. 323.
' Ibid., p. 321,

180 THE PHILIPPINES.

a very devout hermitage (Ermita), called the Hermitage
of Our Lady of Guidance, and from there a good distance
to a monastery and mission (doctrina) of the Augustin-
ians, called Mahalat (Malate)." * The other drive lay out
through the present suburb of Concepcion, then called
Laguio, to Paco, where was a monastery of the Francis-
cans.

The Chinese in Manila. — Early Chinese Commerce. —
We have seen that even as long ago as three hundred
years Manila was a metropolis of the Eastern world. Ves-
sels from many lands dropped anchor at the mouth of the
Pasig, and their merchants set up their booths within her
markets. Slaves from far-distant India and Africa were
sold under her walls. Surely it was a cosmopolitan popu-
lation that the shifting monsoons carried to and from her
gates.

But of all these Eastern races only one has been
a constant and important factor in the life of the Islands.
This is the Chinese. It does not appear that they settled
in the country or materially affected the life of the Fili-
pinos until the establishment of Manila by the Spaniards.
The Spaniards were early desirous of cultivating friendly
relations with the Empire of China. Salcedo, on his first
punitive expedition to Mindoro, had found a Chinese junk,
which had gone ashore on the western coast. He was
careful to rescue these voyagers and return them to their
own land, with a friendly message inviting trading rela-
tions. Commerce and immigration followed immediately
the founding of the city.

The Chinese are without question the most remarkable
colonizers in the world. They seem able to thrive in
any climate. They readily marry with every race. The

' Morga: Sucesos, p. 324,

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 181

children that follow such unions are not only numerous
but healthy and intelligent. The coasts of China teem
with overcrowding populations. Emigration to almost
any land means improvement of the Chinese of poor birth.
These qualities and conditions, with their keen sense for
trade and their indifference to physical hardship and
danger, make the Chinese almost a dominant factor
wherever political barriers have not been raised against
their entrance.

The Chinese had early gained an important place in the
commercial and industrial life of Manila. A letter to the
king from Bishop Salazar shows that he befriended them
and was warm in their praise.' This was in 1590, and
there were then in Manila and Tondo about seven thou-
sand resident Chinese, and they were indispensable to the
prosperity of the city.

Importance of Chinese Labor and Trade. — In the
early decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines were poor in
resources and the population was sparse, quite insufficient
for the purposes of the Spanish colonizers. Thus the
early development of the colony was based upon Chinese
labor and Chinese trade. As the early writers are fond of
emphasizing, from China came not only the finished silks
and costly wares, which in large part were destined for
the trade to New Spain and Europe, but also cattle, horses
and mares, foodstuffs, metals, fruits, and even ink and
paper. "And what is more," says Chirino, "from China
come those who supply every sort of service, _all dexterous,
prompt, and cheap, from physicians and barbers to burden-
bearers and porters. They are the tailors and shoemakers,
metal-workers, silversmiths, sculptors, locksmiths, paint-

' Carta Rel/icion de las Cosas de la China // de los Chinos del Parian
de Manila, 1590; w Reta,aa, Archivo, vol. III.

182 THE PHILIPPINES.

ers, masons, weavers, and finally every kind of servitors
in the commonwealth." '

Distrust of the Chinese. — In those days, not only
were the Chinese artisans and traders, but they were also
farmers and fishermen, — occupations in which they are
now not often seen. But in spite of their economic neces-
sity, the Chinese were always looked upon with disfavor
and their presence with dread. Plots of murder and in-
surrection were supposedly rife among them. Writers ob-
ject that their numbers were so great that there was no
security in the land; their life was bad and vicious;
through intercourse with them the natives advanced but
little in Christianity and customs ; they were such terrible
eaters that they made foods scarce and prices high.

If permitted, they went everywhere through the Islands
and committed a thousand abuses and offenses. They ex-
plored every spot, river, estero, and harbor, and knew
the country better even than the Spaniard himself, so
that if any enemy should come they would be able to
cause infinite mischief.^ When we find so just and high-
minded a man as the president of the Audiencia, Morga,
giving voice to such charges, we may be sure that the feel-
ing was deep and terrible, and practically imiversal among
all Spanish inhabitants.

The First Massacre of the Chinese- — Each race feared
and suspected the other, and from this mutual cowardice
came in 1603 a cruel outbreak and massacre. Three Chi-
nese mandarins arrived in that year, stating that they
had been sent by the emperor to investigate a report that
there was a mountain in Cavite of solid precious metal.

' Tlelacion de las Islas Filipinas, p. 18. See also Salazar, Carta
Relacion.

" Sitcesos de las Islas Filipinas, p. 364.

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 183

This myth was no more absurd than many pursued by the
Spaniards themselves in their early conquests, and it
doubtless arose from the fact that Chinese wares were
largely purchased by Mexican bullion; but the Spaniards
were at once filled with suspicion of an invasion, and
their distrust turned against the Chinese in the Islands.

How far these latter were actually plotting sedition
and how far they were driven into attack by their
fears at the conduct of the Spaniards can hardly be de-
cided. But the fact is, that on the evening of Saint
Francis day the Chinese of the Parian rose. The dragon
banners were raised, war-gongs were beaten, and that
night the pueblos of Quiapo and Tondo were burned and
many Filipinos murdered.

In the morning a force of 130 Spaniards, under Don
Luis Dasmariiias and Don Tomas Bravo, were sent across
the river, and in the fight nearly every Spaniard was slain.
The Chinese then assaulted the city, but, according to
the tradition of the priests, they were driven back in terror
by the apparition on the walls of Saint Francis. They
threw up forts on the site of the Parian and in Dilao, but
the power of their wild fury was gone and the Spaniards
were able to dislodge and drive them into the country
about San Pablo de Monte. From here they were dis-
persed with great slaughter. Twenty-three thousand
Chinese are reported by Zuniga to have perished in
this sedition. If his r'eport is true, the nimiber of Chinese
in the Islands must have increased very rapidly between
1590 and 1603.

Restriction of Chinese Tinmigration and Travel. —
Commerce and immigration began again almost immediately.
The number of Chinese, however, allowed to remain was
reduced. The Chinese ships that came annually to trade

184 THE PHILIPPINES.

were obliged to take back with them the crews and pas-
sengers which they brought. Only a limited number of
merchants and artisans were permitted to live in the Is-
lands. They were confined to three districts in the city of
Manila, and to the great market, the Alcayceria or Parian.

The word " Parian" seems to have been also used for the
Chinese quarter in and adjoining the walled city, but here
is meant the district in Binondo about the present Calle
San Fernando. A block of stores with small habitations
above them had been built as early as the time of Gon-
salez. It was in the form of a square, and here were the
largest numbers of shops and stores.

They could not travel about the Islands, nor go two
leagues from the city without a written license, nor remain
over night within the city after the gates were closed, on
penalty of their lives. They had their own alcalde and
judge, a tribunal and jail ; and on the north side of the
river Dominican friars, who had learned the Chinese lan-
guage, had erected a mission and hospital. There was a
separate barrio for the baptized Chinese and their families,
to the number of about five hundred.

The Chinese in the Philippines from the earliest time to
the present have been known by the name of "Sang-
leyes." The derivation of this curious word is uncertain;
but Navarrete, who must have understood Chinese well,
says that the word arose from a misapprehension of the
words spoken by the Chinese who first presented them-
selves at Manila. "Being asked what they came for,
they answered, 'Xang Lei,' that is, 'We come to trade.'
The Spaniards, who understood not their language, con-
ceiving it to be the name of a country, and putting the
two words together, made one of them, by which they
still distinguish the Chinese, calling them Sangleyes."

THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. 185

The Japanese Colony. — There was also in these early
years quite a colony of Japanese. Their community lay
between the Parian and the barrio of Laguio. There were
about five hundred, and among them the Franciscans
claimed a goodly number of converts.

The Filipino District of Tondo. — We have described at
some length the city south of the river and the surround-
ing suburbs, most of them known by the names they hold
to-day. North of the Pasig was the great district of
Tondo, the center of that strong, independent Filipino
feeling which at an early date was colored with Moham-
medanism and to this day is strong in local feeling. This
region has thriven and built up until it has long been by
far the most important and populous part of the metrop-
olis, but not until very recent times was it regarded as a
part of the city of Manila, which name was reserved for
the walled citadel alone.

A bridge across the Pasig, on the site of the present
Puente de Espana, connected the two districts at a date
later than Morga's time. It was one of the first things
noticed by Navarrete, who, without describing it well,
says it was very fine. It was built during the governor-
ship of Niiio de Tabora, who died in 1632.' Montero
states that it was of stone, and that this same bridge
stood for more than two centuries, resisting the incessant
traffic and the strength of floods.^

The Decline of Manila during the Next Century. — Such
was Manila thirty-five and forty years after its founda-
tion. It was at the zenith of its importance, the capital
of the eastern colonies, the mart of Asia, more splendid
than Goa, more powerful than Malacca or Macao, more

' Zufiiga: Historia de las Filipinas, p. 252.
^ Historia General de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 187.

186 THE PHILIPPINES.

populous and far more securely held than Ternate and
Tidor. "Truly," exclaimed Chirino, "it is another Tyre,
so magnified by Ezekiel." It owed its great place to the
genius and daring of the men who founded it, to the free-
dom of action which it had up to this point^ enjoyed,
and to its superlative situation.

In the years that followed we have to recount for
the most part only the process of decline. Spain her-
self was fast on the wane. A few years later and the
English had almost driven her navies from the seas, the
Portuguese had regained their independence and lost em-
pire, the Dutch were in the East, harrying Portuguese and
Spaniard alike and fast monopolizing the rich trade. The
commerce and friendly relations with the Chinese, on
which so much depended, were broken by massacre and
reprisal; and, most terrible and piteous of all, the awful
wrath and lust of the Malay pirate, for decade after de-
cade, was to be visited upon the archipelago.

The colonial policy of the mother-land, selfish, short-
sighted, and criminal, was soon to make its paralyzing
influence felt upon trade and administration alike. These
things were growing and taking place in the next period
which we have to consider, — the years from 1600. to
1663. They left the Philippines despoiled and insignifi-
cant for a whole succeeding century, a decadent colony
and an exploited treasure.

CHAPTER IX.
THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663.

Loss of the Naval Power of Spain and Portugal. — The

seizure of Portugal by Philip II. in 1580 was disastrous
in its consequences to both Portugal and Spain. For
Portugal it was humiliation and loss of colonial power,
Spain was unequal to the task of defending the Portu-
guese possessions, and her jealousy of their prosperity
seems to have caused her deliberately to neglect their in-
terests and permit their decline. In one day Portugal
lost possession of that splendid and daring navy which had
first found a way to the Indies. Several hundred Portu-
guese ships, thousands of guns, and large sums of money
were appropriated by Spain upon the annexation of Por-
tugal.* Most of these ill-fated ships went down in the
English Channel with the Great Armada.

When the terrible news of the destruction of this power-
ful armament, on which rested Spanish hopes for the con-
quest and humiliation of England, was brought to the
Escorial, the magnificent palace where the years of the
king were passed, Philip II., that strange man, whose
countenance never changed at tidings of either defeat or
victory, is reported to have simply said, "I thank God
that I have the power to replace the loss." He was fatu-
ously mistaken. The loss could never be made good.
The navies of Spain and Portugal were never fully rebuilt.
In that year (1588), preeminence on the sea passed to the
English and the Dutch.

' Morris : The History of Colonization, vol. I., p. 215 sq.

187

188 THE PHILIPPINES.

The Netherlands Become an Independent Country. —

Who were these Dutch, or Hollanders? How came they
to wrest from Spain and Portugal a colonial empire, which
they hold to-day without loss of prosperity or evidence of
decline? In the north of Europe, facing the North Sea,
is a low, rich land, intersected by rivers and washed far
into its interior by the tides, known as Holland, the Low
Countries, or the Netherlands. Its people have ever been
famed for their industry and hardihood. In manufacture
and trade in the latter Middle Age, they stood far in the
lead in northern Europe. Their towns and cities were the
thriftiest, most prosperous, and most cleanly.

We have already explained the curious facts of succes-
sion by which these countries became a possession of the
Spanish king. Emperor Charles the Fifth. The Low Coun-
tries were always greatly prized by Charles, and in spite
of the severities of his rule he held their affection and
loyalty until his death. It was in the city of Antwerp
that he formally abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II.,
and, as described by contemporary historians, this solemn
and imposing ceremony was witnessed with every mark
of loyalty by the assembly.

The Behellion. — But the oppressions and persecu-
tions of Philip's reign drove the people to rebellion. The
Netherlands had embraced the Protestant religion, and
when, in addition to plunder, intimidation, the quartering
of Spanish soldiery, and the violation of sovereign prom-
ises, Philip imposed that terrible and merciless institution,
the Spanish Inquisition, the Low Countries faced the ty-
rant in a passion of rebellion.

War, begun in 1556, dragged on for years. There was
pitiless cruelty, and the sacking of cities was accompanied
by fearful butchery. In 1575 the seven Dutch counties

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1603. 189

declared their independence, and formed the republic of
the Netherlands. Although the efforts of Spain to re-
conquer the territory continued until the end of the cen-
tury, practical independence was gained some years before.

Trade between Portugal and the Netherlands Forbidden.
— A large portion of the commerce of the Low Countries
had been with Lisbon. The Portuguese did not distrib-
ute to Europe the products which their navies brought
from the Indies. Foreign merchants purchased in Lisbon
and carried these wares to other lands, and to a very large
degree this service had been performed by the Dutch.
But on the annexation of Portugal, Philip forbade all
commerce and trade between the two countries. By this
act the Dutch, deprived of their Lisbon trade, had to face
the alternative of commercial ruin or the gaining of those
Eastern products for themselves. They chose the latter
course with all its risks. It was soon made possible by
the destruction of the Armada.

The Dutch Expeditions to the Indies. — In 1595 their
first expedition, led by one Cornelius Houtman, who had
sailed in Portuguese galleons, rounded the Cape of Good
Hope and entered the Indian domain. The objective
point was Java, where an alliance was formed with the
native princes and a cargo of pepper secm-ed. Two things
were shown by the safe return of this fleet, — the great
wealth and profit of the Indian trade, and the inability
of Spain and Portugal to maintain their monopoly.

In 1598 the merchants of Amsterdam defeated a com-
bined Spanish and Portuguese fleet in the East, and trad-
ing settlements were secured in Java and Johore. In
1605 they carried their factories to Amboina and Tidor.

Effect of the Success of the Dutch. — The exclusive
monopoly over the waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans,

190 THE PHILIPPINES.

which Portugal and Spain had maintained for a century,
was broken. With the concurrence of the Roman See,
they had tried to divide the New World and the Orient
between them. That effort was now passed. They had
claimed the right to exclude from the vast oceans they
had discovered the vessels of every other nation but their
own.

This doctrine in the History of International Law
is known as that of mare clausum, or " closed sea." The
death-blow to this domination was given by the entrance
of the Dutch into the Indies, and it is not a mere coinci-
dence that we find the doctrine of closed sea itseK scien-
tifically assailed, a few years later, by the great Dutch
jurist, Grotius, the founder of the system of international
law in his work, De Libera Mare.

The Trading Methods of the Dutch. — The Dutch made
no attempts in the Indies to foimd great colonies for po-
litical domination and religious conversion. Commerce
was their sole object. Their policy was to form alliances
with native rulers, promising to assist them against the
rule of the Portuguese or Spaniard in return for exclu-
sive privileges of trade. In this they were more than suc-
cessful.

In 1602 they obtained permission to establish a factory
at Bantam, on the island of Java. This was even then a
considerable trading-point. "Chinese, Arabs, Persians,
Moors, Turks, Malabars, Peguans, and merchants from
all nations were established there," the principal object of
trade being pepper.^

The character of the treaty made by the Dutch with
the king of Bantam is stated by Raffles. "The Dutch
stipulated to assist, him against foreign invaders, particu-

' Raffles: History of Java, vol. II., p. 116.

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 191

larly Spaniards and Portuguese; and the king, on his side,
agreed, to make over to the Dutch a good and strong
fort, a free trade, and security for their persons and
property without pajnnent of any duties or taxes, and
to allow no other European nation to trade or reside in
his territories."

Spanish Expedition against the Dutch in the Moluccas.
— The Spaniards, however, did not relinquish the field to
these new foes without a struggle, and the conflict fills
the history of the eighteenth century. When the Dutch
expelled the Portuguese from Amboina and Tidor in Feb-
ruary, 1605, many of the Portuguese came to the Phil-
ippines and enlisted in the Spanish forces. The governor,
Don Pedro Bravo de,Acuna, filled with wrath at the loss
of these important possessions, with great activity organ-
ized an expedition for their conquest.

In the previous year there had arrived from Spain eight
hundred troops, two hundred of them being native
Mexicans. Thus Acuiia was able to organize a powerful
fleet that mounted seventy-five pieces of artillery and
carried over fourteen hundred Spaniards and sixteen
hundred Indians.' The fleet sailed in January, 1606.
Tidor was taken without resistance and the Dutch fac-
tory seized, with a great store of money, goods, and
weapons. The Spaniards then assailed Ternate; the fort
and plaza were bombarded, and then the town was car-
ried by storm.

Thus, at last was accomplished the adventure which
for nearly a century had inspired the ambitions of the
Spaniards, which had drawn the fleet of Magellan, which
had wrecked the expeditions of Loyasa and Villalobos, for

' On the history of this notable expedition see Argensola, Conguista
de las Islas Molucas. Madrid, 1609.

192 THE PHILIPPINES.

which the Spaniards in the Philippines had prepared ex-
pedition after expedition, and for which Governor Das-
mariiias had sacrificed his Hfe. At last the Moluccas
had been taken by the forces of Spain.

Capture of a Dutch Fleet at Mariveles. — So far from
disposing of their enemies, however, this action simply
brought the Dutch into the Philippines. In 1609, Juan
de Silva became governor of the Islands and in the same
year arrived the Dutch admiral, Wittert, with a squadron.
After an unsuccessful attack on Iloilo, the Dutch fleet
anchored off Mariveles, to capture vessels arriving for the
Manila trade.

At this place, on the 25th of April, 1610, the Spanish
fleet, which had been hastily fitted at Cavite, attacked
the Dutch, killing the admiral and taking all the ships but
one, two himdred and fifty prisoners, and a large amount
of silver and merchandise. These prispners seem to have
been treated with more mercy than the captives of Van
Noort's fleet, who were hung at Cavite. The wounded are
said to have been cared for, and the friars from all the
religious orders vied with one another to convert these
"Protestant pirates" from their heresy.

An Expedition against the Dutch in Java. — Spain made
a truce of her European wars with Holland in 1609, but
this cessation of hostilities was never recognized in the
East. The Dutch and Spanish colonists continued to war
upon and pillp-ge each other until late in the century. En-
couraged by his victory over Wittert, Silva negotiated
with the Portuguese allies in Goa, India, to drive the
Dutch from Java. A powerful squadron sailed from
Cavite in 1616 for this purpose. It was the largest fleet
which up to that date had ever been assembled in the
Philippines. The expedition, however, failed to unite with

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 193

their Portuguese allies, and in April, Silva died at Malacca
of malignant fever.

The Dutch Fleets. — Battles near Corregidor. — The
fleet retm-ned to Cavite to find that the city, while stripped
of soldiers and artillery, had been in a fever of anxiety
and apprehension over the proximity of Dutch vessels.
They were those of Admiral Spilbergen, who had arrived
by way of the Straits of Magellan and the Pacific. He
has left us a chart of the San Bernadino Straits, which is
reproduced here. Spilbergen bombarded Ilolio and then
sailed for the Moluccas. .

A year later he returned, met a Spanish fleet of seven
galleons and two galleras near Manila and suffered a
severe defeat.' The battle began with cannonading on
Friday, April 13, and continued throughout the day.
On the following day the vessels came to close quarters,
the Spaniards boarded the Dutch vessels, and the battle
was fought out with the sword.

The Dutch were overwhelmed. Probably their num-
bers were few. The Relacion states they had fourteen
galleons, but other accounts put the number at ten,
three vessels of which were destroyed or taken by the
Spaniards. One of them, the beautiful ship, "The Sun
of Holland," was burned. This combat is known as the
battle of Playa Honda. Another engagement took place in
the same waters of Corregidor, late in 1624, when a Dutch
fleet was driven away without serious loss to either side.

The Dutch Capture Chinese Junks, and Galleons. —
But through the intervening years, fleets of the Hollanders

1 An account of this victory, written the following year, Relacion
Verdadera de la Grand Vittoria, que el Armada Espanola de la China
tuuo contra los Orlandeses Pirates, has been reprinted by Retana,
Archivo ^Biblidfilo Filipino, vol. II.

194 THE PHILIPPINES.

were continually arriving, both by the way of the Cape of
Good Hope and the Straits of Magellan. Those that came
across the Pacific almost invariably cruised up the Strait
of San Bernadino, securing the fresh provisions so desir-
able to them after their long voyage.

The prizes which they made of Chinese vessels, passing
Corregidor for Manila, give us an idea of how consider-
ably the Spaniards in the Philippines relied upon China
for their food. Junks, or " champans," were continually
passing Corregidor, laden with chickens, hogs, rice, sugar,
and other comestibles.'

The Mexican galleons were frequently destroyed or cap-
tured by these lurking fleets of the Dutch, and for a time
the route through the Straits of San Bernadino had to be
abandoned, the galleons reaching Manila by way of Cape
Engano, or sometimes landing in Cagayan, and more than
once going ashore on the Pacific side of the island, at
Binangonan de Lampon.

The Dutch in Formosa. — The Dutch also made repeated
efforts to wrest from Portvigal her settlement and trade in
China. As early as 1557 the Portuguese had estabhshed
a settlement on the island of Macao, one of these niunerous
islets that fill the estuary of the river of Canton. This is
the oldest European settlement in China and has been
held continuously by the Portuguese until the present
day, when it remains almost the last vestige of the once
mighty Portuguese empire of the East. It was much
coveted by the Dutch because of its importance in the
trade with Canton and Fukien.

' "Just before the naval engagement of Playa Honda, the Dutch
intercepted junks. on the way to Manila, bringing, amongst their car-
goes of food, as many as twelve thousand capons." — Foreman: The
Philippine Islands, p. 104.

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 195

In 1622 a fleet from Java brought siege to Macao, and,
being repulsed, sailed to the Pescadores Islands, where
they built a fort and established a post, which threatened
both the Portuguese trade with Japan and the Manila
trade with Amoy. Two years later, on the solicitation
of the Chinese government, the Dutch removed their
settlement to Formosa, where they broke up the Spanish
mission stations and held the island for the succeeding
thirty-five years. Thus, throughout the century, these
European powers harassed and raided one another, but
no one of them was sufficiently strong to expel the others
from the East.

The Portuguese Colonies. — In 1640 the kingdom of
Portugal freed itself from the domination of Spain. With
the same blow Spain lost the great colonial possessions
that came to her with the attachment of the Portuguese.
"All the places," says Zuniga, "which the Portuguese had
in the Indies, separated themselves from the crown of
Castile and recognized as king, Don Juan of Portugal."
"This same year," he adds, "the Dutch took Malacca." ^

The Moros. — Increase of Moro Piracy. — During all
these years the raids of the Moros of Maguindanao and
Jolo had never ceased. Their piracies were almost con-
tinuous. There was no security; churches were looted,
priests killed, people borne away for ransom or for slavery.
Obviously, this piracy could only be met by destroying it
at its source. Defensive fortifications and protective fleets
were of no consequence, when compared with the necessity
of subduing the Moro in his own lairs. In 1628 and 1630
punitive expeditions were sent against Jolo, Basilan, and
Mindanao, which drove the Moros from their forts, burned
their towns, and cut down their groves of cocoanut trees.

' Historia de Filipinas, p. 282,

196 THE PHILIPPINES.

But such expeditions served only to inflame the more the
wrathful vengeance of the Moro, and in 1635 the govern-
ment resolved upon a change of policy and the establish-
ment of a presidio at Zamboanga.

Founding of a Spanish Post at Zamboanga. — This
brings us to a new phase in the Moro wars. The gover-
nor, Juan Cerezo de Salamanca, was determined upon the
conquest and the occupation of Mindanao and Job. In
taking this step, Salamanca, like Corcuera, who succeeded
him, acted under the influence of the Jesuits. Their mis-
sions in Bohol and northern Mindanao made them ambi-
tious to reserve for the ministrations of their society all
lands that were conquered and occupied, south of the
Bisayas.

The Jesuits were the missionaries on Ternate and
Siao and wherever in the Moluccas and Celebes the Span-
ish and Portuguese had established their power. The
Jesuits had accompanied the expedition of Rodriguez de
Figueroa in 1595, and from that date they never ceased
petitioning the government for a, military occupation of
these islands and for their own return, as the missionaries
of these regions. The Jesuits were brilliant and able
administrators. For men of their ambition, Mindanao,
with its rich soil, attractive productions, and compara-
tively numerous populations, was a most enticing field for
the establishment of such a theocratic commonwealth as
the Jesuits had created and administered in America.'

On the other hand, the occupation of Zamboanga was
strenuously opposed by the other religious orders; but the
Jesuits, ever remarkable for their ascendancy in affairs of

' How attractive the island appeared and how well they knew its
peoples is re\'ealed by the accurate descriptions in Jhe first book of
Combos' Ilistoria de Mindanao y Jolo.

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 197

state, were able to effect the establishment of Zamboanga,
though they could not prevent its abandonment a quarter
of a century later.

Erection of the Forts. — The presidio was founded in
1635, by a force imder Don Juan de Chaves. His army
consisted of three hundred Spaniards and one thousand
Bisaya. The end of the peninsula was swept of Moro
inhabitants and their towns destroyed by fire. In June
the foundations of the stone fort were laid under the
direction of the Jesuit, Father Vera, who is described as
being experienced in military engineering and architecture.

To supply the new site with water, a ditch was built
from the river Tumaga, a distance of six or seven miles,
which brought a copious stream to the very walls of the
fort. The advantage or failure of this expensive fortress
is very hard to determine. Its planting was a partisan
measure, and it was always subject to partisan praise and
partisan blame. Sometimes it seemed to have checked
the Moros and sometimes seemed only to be stirring them
to fresh anger and aggression.

The same year that saw the establishment of Zam-
boanga, Hortado de Corcuera became governor of the
Philippines. He was much under the influence of the
Jesuits and confirmed their policy of conquest.

Defeat of the Moro Pirate Tagal. — A few months
later a notable fleet of pirates, recruited from Mindanao,
Jolo, and Borneo, and headed by a chieftain named Tagal,
a brother of the notorious Correlat, sultan of Maguin-
danao, went defiantly past the new presidio and north-
ward through the Miiiddrol Siea. . For more than seven
months they cruised the Bisayas. The islands of the
Camarines especially "felt their ravages. In Cuyo they^
captured the corregldor and three friars, Finally, with

198

THE PHILIPPINES.

650 captives and rich booty, including the ornaments
and services of churches, Tagal turned southward on his
return.

The presidio of Zamboanga had prepared to intercept him

_^,, and a fierce battle

took place off the
Punta de Flechas,
thirty leagues to
the northeast of
Zamboanga. Ac-
cording to the
Spanish writers,
this point was one
held sacred b y
M o r supersti-
tions. A deity
inhabited these
waters, whom the
Moros were ac-
customed to pro-
pitiate on the de-
parture and ar-
rival of their
expeditions, b y
throwing into the
sea lances and
arrows. The vic-
I tory was a not-

able one for the Spanish arms. Tagal and more than
300 Moros were killed, and 120 Christian captives were
released.

forme ra' s E.\-pediti on f I gainst the Moros at LamUan.
— Corcuera had meanwhile been preparing an expedition

Moro Helmet and Coat of Mail.

THE DUTCH AXD MORO WARS. 1600-166:',. 199

which had taken on the character of a holy war. Jesuit
and soldier mingled in its company and united in its di-
rection. The Jesuit saint, Francis Xavier, was proclaimed
patron of the expedition, and mass was celebrated daily
on the ships. Corcuera himself accompanied the expedi-
tion, and at Zamboanga, where they arrived February 22,
1637, he united a force of 760 Spaniards and many Bi-
sayans and Pampangas.

From Zamboanga the force started for Lamitan, the
stronghold of Correlat, and the center of the power of the

Maguindanao. It seems to have been situated on the
coast, south of the region of Lake Lanao. The fleet
encountered rough weather and contrary winds off Punta
de Flechas, which they attributed to the influence of the
Moro demon.

To rid the locality of this unholy influence. Padre
Marcello, the Jesuit superior, occupied himself for two
days. Padre Combos has left us an account of the cere-
mony.* The demon was dispossessed by exorcism. Mass
was celebrated. Various articles, representing Moro in-

^ Historia de Mindanao y Jolo, lib. IV., chap. 7.

200

THE PHILIPPINES.

fidelity, including arrows, were destroyed and burnt. Holy
relics were thrown into the waters, and the place was
finally sanctified by baptism in the name of Saint Sebas-
tian.
On the 14th of March the expedition reached Lamitan,

fortified and defended by two thousand Moro warriors.
The Spanish force, however, was overwhelming, and the

city was taken by storm. Here were captured eight
bronze cannon, twenty-seven "versos" (a kind of small
howitzer), and over a hundred muskets and arquebuses
and a great store of Moro weapons. Over one hundred
vessels were destroyed, including a fleet of Malay mer-
chant praos from Java. Sixteen villages were burned,

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663.

201

arid seventy-two Moros were hung. Correlat, though pur-
sued and wounded, was not captured.^

The Conquest of Jolo. — Corcuera returned to Zam-
boanga and organized an expedition for the conquest of
Jolo. Although defended by four thousand Moro war-
riors and by allies from Basilan and the Celebes, Corcuera
took Jolo after some months of siege. The sultan saved

Old Uoio Pirate Boat.

himself by flight, but the sultana was taken prisoner.
Corcuera reconstructed the fort, established a garrison of
two hundred Spaniards and an equal number of Pampan-
gas, left some Jesuit fathers, and, having nominated

' This important victory was commemorated in a number of writ-
ings, some of whicli have been reprinted by Retana. See Sucesos
Felices, que par Mar y Tierra ha dado N. S. a las armas Espanolas, 1637.
Another is published in the Appendix to B'arrantes', Historia de Guer-^
ras Piraticas. The subject is also fully treated by Combos.

202 THE PHILIPPINES.

Major Almonte chief of all the forces in the south, returned
in May, 1638, to Manila, with all the triumph of a con-
queror.

Almonte continued the work of subjugation. In 1639
he conquered the Moro dato of Buhayen, in the valley of
the Rio Grande, where a small presidio was foimded. And
in the same year the Jesuits prevailed upon him to invade
the territory of the Malanao, now known as the Laguna
de Lanao. This expedition was made from the north
through Iligan, and for a time brought even this warlike
and difficult territory tmder the authority of the governor
and the spiritual administration of the Jesuits.

Loss of the Spanish Settlement on Formosa. — The full
military success of Corcuera's governorship was marred by
the loss of Macao and the captm-e of the Spanish settle-
ment on the island of Formosa by the Dutch. In the
attempt to hold Macao, Corcuera sent over the encomen-
dero of Pasig, Don Juan Claudio. The populace of Macao,
however, rose in tumult, assassinated the governor, Sebas-
tian Lobo, and pronounced in favor of Portugal. Later,
by decree of the Portuguese governor of Goa, all the
Spanish residents and missionaries were expelled. The
Dutch seizure of Formosa, a year later, has already been
described.

The Archipelago and the Religious Orders. — During
these decades, conflict was almost incessant between the
archbishop of Manila and the regular orders. In the
Philippines the regulars were the parish curates, and the
archbishop desired that all matters of their curacy, touch-
ing the administration of the sacraments and other parish
duties, should be subject to the direction of the bishops.
This question of the "diocesan visit" was fought over
for nearly two hundred years.

THE DUTCH AND MORO M'ARS. 1600-1663. 203

The Governor and the Archbishop. — Even more serious
to the colony were the conflicts that raged between the
governor-general and the archbishop. All the points of
dissension between Church and State, which vexed the
Middle Ages, broke out afresh in the Philippines. The
appointment of religious officers; the distribution of reve-
nue; the treatment of the natives; the claim of the church
to offer asylum to those fleeing the arm of the law; its
claims of jurisdiction, in its ecclesiastical courts, over a
large class of civil offenses — these disputes and many
others, occasioned almost incessant discord between the
heads of civil and ecclesiastical authority.

The " Residencia." — We have seen that the power of
the governor was in fact very large. Theoretically, the
Audiencia was a limit upon his authority; but in fact the
governor was usually the president of this body, and the
oidores were frequently his abettors and rarely his oppo-
nents. At the end of each governor's rule there took
place a characteristic Spanish institution, called the " Resi-
dencia." This was a court held by the newly elected
governor, for an examination into the conduct of his
predecessor. Complaints of every description were re-
ceived, and often, in the history of the Philippines, one
who had ruled the archipelago almost as an independent
monarch found himself, at the end of his office, ruined,
and in chains.

It was upon the occasion of the Residencia that the
ecclesiastical powers, after a governorship stormy with
disputes, exercised their power for revenge. Unquestion-
ably many a governor, despite his actual power, facing.^
as he did, the Residencia at the termination of his rule,
made peace with his enemies and yielded to their de-
mands.

204 THE PHILIPPINES.

Corcuera had continuous troubles with the archbishop
and with the reUgious orders other than the Jesuits. In
1644, when his successor, Fajardo, reheved him, the Fran-
ciscans, Augustinians, and Recollects procured his imprison-
ment and the confiscation of his property. For five years,
the conqueror of the Moros lay a prisoner in the fortresses
of Santiago and Cavite, when he was pardoned by the
Council of the Indies, and appointed governor of the Can-
aries by the king.

Weakening of the Governor's Power. — This power
of private and religious classes to intimidate and overawe
the responsible head of the Philippine government was an
abuse which continued to the very close of the Spanish
rule. This, together with the relatively short terrn of the
governor's office, his natural desire to avoid trouble, his
all too frequent purpose of amassing a fortune rather than
maintaining the dignity of his position and advancing the
interests of the Islands, combined decade after decade to
make the spiritual authority more powerful. In the end the
religious orders, with their great body of members, their
hold upon the Filipinos, their high influence at the court,
and finally their great landed wealth, governed the Islands.

The Educational Work of the Religious Orders- — In
any criticism of the evils connected with their administra-
tion of the Philippines, one must not fail to recognize the
many achievements of the missionary friars that were
worthy. To the Dominicans and the Jesuits is due the
establishment of institutions of learning. The Jesuits in
1601 had planted their College of San Jos6. The Domini-
cans, here as in Europe, the champions of orthodox learn-
ing, had their own institution, the College of Santo Tomas,
inaugurated in 1619, and were the rivals of the Jesuits
for the privilege of giving higher instruction.

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 205

In 1645 the pope granted to the Dominicans the right to
bestow higher degrees, and their college became the " Royal
and Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas."
This splendid name breathes that very spirit of the Middle
Ages which the Dominican order strove to perpetuate in
the Philippines down to modern days.^ Dominicans also
founded the College of San Juan de Letran, as a prepara-
tory school to the University.

"We should not pass over the educational work of the
religious orders without mention of the early printing-
plants and their publications. The missionary friars were
famous printers, and in the Philippines, as well as in Amer-
ica, some noble volumes were produced by their handi-
craft. '

Fozmding of Hospitals by the Franciscans. — Nor
had the Franciscans in the Philippines neglected the fun-
damental purpose of their foundation, — that of ministra-
tion to the sick and unprotected. A narrative of their
order, written in 1649, gives a long list of their beneficent
foundations.^ Besides the hospital of Manila, they had an
infirmary at Cavite for the native mariners and ship-
builders, a hospital at Los Banos, another in the city of
Nueva Caceras. Lay brethren were attached to many of
the convents as nurses.

In 1633 a curious occurrence led to the founding of the
leper hospital of San Lazaro. The emperor of Japan, in
a probably ironical mood, sent to Manila a shipload of
Japanese affiicted with this unfortunate disease. These
people were mercifully received by the Franciscans, and

' The king did not confer the title of "Royal" until 1735, although
the University was taken under his protection in 1680.

^ Entrada de la Seraphica Religion, de Nuestro P. S. Francisco en
las Islas Filipinas, Retana, vol. I.

206 THE PHILIPPINES.

cared for in a home, which became the San Lazaro hos-
pital for lepers.

Life and Progress of the Filipinos. — Few sources exist
that can show us the life and progress of the Filipino
people during these decades. Christianity, as introduced
by the missionary friars, was wonderfully successful, and
yet there ' were relapses into heathenism. Old religious
leaders and priestesses roused up from time to time, and
incited the natives to rebellion against their new spiritual
masters. The payment of tribute and the labor required
for the building of churches often drove the people into
the mountains.

Religious Revolt at Bohol and Leyte. — In 1621 a
somewhat serious revolt took place on Bohol. The Jes-
uits who administered the island were absent in Cebu,
attending the fiestas on the canonization of Saint Francis
Xavier. The whisper was raised that the old heathen
deity, Diwata, was at hand to assist in the expulsion of
the Spaniards. The island rose in revolt, except the two
towns of Loboc and Baclayan. Four towns were burned, .
the churches sacked, and the sacred images speared. The
revolt spread to Leyte, where it was headed by the old
dato, Bancao of Limasaua, who had sworn friendship with
Legaspi. This insurrection was put down by the alcalde
maycir of Cebu and the Filipino leaders were hung. On
Leyte, Bancao was speared in battle, and one of the
heathen priests suffered the penalty, prescribed by the
Inquisition for heresy — death by burning.

Revolt of the Pampangas. — The heavy drafting of
natives to fell trees and build the ships for the Spanish
naval expeditions and the Acapulco trade was also a
cause for insurrection. In 1660 a thousand Pampangas
were kept cutting in the forests of that province alone.

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 207

Sullen at their heavy labor and at the harshness of their
overseers, these natives rose in revolt. The sedition
spread to Pangasinan, Zambales, and Ilocos, and it re-
quired the utmost efforts of the Spanish forces on land
and water to suppress the rebellion.

Uprising of the Chinese. — In spite of the terrible mas-
sacre, that had been visited upon the Chinese at the
beginning of the century, they had almost immediately
commenced returning not only as merchants, but as colo-
nists. The early restrictions upon their life must have been
relaxed, for in 1639 there were more than thirty thousand
living in the Islands, many of them cultivating lands at
Calamba and at other points on the Laguna de Bay.

In that year a rebellion broke out, in which the Chinese
in Manila participated. They seized the church of San
Pedro Mecati, on the Pasig, and fortified themselves.
From there they were routed by a combined Filipino and
Spanish force. The Chinese then broke up into small
bands, which scattered through the country, looting and
murdering, but being pursued and cut to pieces by the
Filipinos. For five months this pillage and massacre went
on, until seven thousand Chinese were destroyed. By
the loss of these agriculturists and laborers Manila was
reduced to great distress.

Activity of the Moro Pirates. — The task of the Span-
iards in controlling the Moro dates continued to be
immensely difficult. During the years following the
successes of Corcuera and Almonte, the Moros were con-
tinually plotting. Aid was furnished from Borneo and
the Celebes, and they were further incited by the Dutch.
In spite of the vigilance of Zamboanga, small piratical
excursions continually harassed the Bisayas and the
Camarines.

208 THE PHILIPPINES.

Continued Conflicts with the Dutch. — The Dutch, too,
from time to time showed themselves in Manila. In 1646
a squadron attacked Zamboanga, and then came north to
Luzon. The Spanish naval strength was quite unprepared;
but two galleons, lately arrived from Acapulco, were fitted
with heavy guns, Dominican friars took their places
among the gunners, and, under the protection of the
Virgin of the Rosary, successfully encountered the enemy.

A year later a fleet of twelve vessels entered Manila Bay,
and nearly succeeded in taking Cavite. Failing in this,
they landed in Bataan province, and for some time held
the coast of Manila Bay in the vicinity of Abucay. The
narrative of Franciscan missions in 1649, above cited, gives
town after town in southern Luzon, where church and
convent had been burned by the Moros or the Dutch.

The Abandonment of Zamboanga and the Moluccas. —
The threat of the Dutch made the maintenance of the
presidio of Zamboanga very burdensome. In 1656 the
administration of the Moluccas was united with that of
Mindanao, and the governor of the former, Don Francisco
de Esteybar, was transferred from Ternate to Zamboanga
and made lieutenant-governor and captain-general of all
the provinces of the south.

Six years later, the Moluccas, so long coveted by the
Spaniards, and so slowly won by them, together with
Zamboanga, were wholly abandoned, and to the Spice
Islands the Spaniards were never to return. This sudden
retirement from their southern possessions was not, how-
ever, occasioned by the incessant restlessness of the Moros
nor by the plottings of the Dutch. It was due to a threat
of danger from the north.

Koxinga the Chinese Adventurer. — In 1644, China
was conquered by the Manchus. Pekin capitulated at

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 209

once and the Ming dynasty was overthrown, but it was
only by many years of fighting that the Manchus over-
came the Chinese of the central and southern provinces.
These were years of turbulance, revolt, and piracy.

More than one Chinese adventurer rose to a romantic
position during this disturbed time. One of these adven-
tm-ers, named It Coan, had been a poor fisherman of
Chio. He had lived in Macao, where he had been con-
verted to Christianity, and had been a cargador, or cargo-
bearer, in Manila. He afterwards went to Japan, and
engaged in trade. From these humble and laborious
beginnings, like many another of his persistent country-
men, he gained great wealth, which on the conquest of the
Manchus he devoted to piracy.

His son was the notorious Kue-Sing, or Koxinga, who
for years resisted the armies of the Manchus, and main-
tained an independent power over the coasts of Fukien
and Chekiang. About 1660 the forces of the Manchus
became too formidable for him to longer resist them upon
the mainland, and Koxinga determined upon the capture
of Formosa and the transference of his kingdom to that
island.

For thirty-eight years this island had been dominated
by the Dutch, whose fortresses commanded the channel of
the Pescadores. The colony was regarded as an impor-
tant one by the Dutch colonial government at Batavia.
The city of Tai-wan, on the west coast, was a con-
siderable center of trade. It was strongly protected by
the fortress of Zealand, and had a garrison of twenty-
two hundred Dutch soldiers. After months of fighting,
Koxinga, with an overpowering force of Chinese, com-
pelled the surrender of the Hollanders and the beautiful
island passed into his power.

210 THE PHILIPPINES.

A Threatened Invasion of the Philippines- — Exalted
by his success against European arms, Koxinga resolved
upon the conquest of the Philippines. He summoned to
his service the Italian Dominican missionary, Ricci, who
had been living in the province of Fukien, and in the
spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the
governor of the Philippines to demand the submission of
the archipelago.

Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this de-
mand, and indeed ho such danger had threatened the
Spanish in the Philippines since the invasion of Lima-
hong. The Chinese conqueror had an innumerable army,
and his armament, stores, and navy had been greatly
augmented by the surrender of the Dutch. The Span-
iards, however, were united on resistance. The governor,
Don Sabiano Manrique de Lara, returned a defiant
answer to Koxinga, and the most radical measures were
adopted to place the colony in a state of defense.

All Chinese were ordered immediately to leave the
Islands. Fearful of massacre, these wretched people
again broke out in rebellion, and assaulted the city.
Many were slain, and other bands wandered off into the
mountains, where they perished at the hands of the na-
tives. Others, escaping by frail boats, joined the Chinese
colonists on Formosa. Churches and convents in the sub-
urbs of Manila, which might afford shelter to the assailant,
were razed to the ground. More than all this, the Moluccas
were forsaken, never again to be recovered by Spaniards;
and the- presidios of Zamboanga and Cuyo, which served
as a kind of bridle on the Moros of Job and Mindanao,
were abandoned. All Spanish troops were concentrated
in Manila, fortifications were rebuilt, and the population
waited anxiously for the attack. But the blow never fell.

THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663. 211

Before Ricci arrived at Tai-wan, Koxinga was dead, and
the peril of Chinese invasion had passed.

Effects of These Events. — But the Philippines had
suffered irretrievable loss. Spanish prestige was gone.
Manila was no longer, as she had been at the commence-
ment of the century, the capital of the East. Spanish
sovereignty was again confined to Luzon and the
Bisayas. The Chinese trade, on which rested the economic
prosperity of Manila, had once again been ruined. For
a hundred years the history of the Philippines is a dull
monotony, quite unrelieved by any heroic activity or the
presence of noble character.'

' The Jesuits, on retiring with the Spanish forces from the Moluc-
cas, brought from Ternate a colony of their converts. These people
were settled at Marigondon, on the south shore of Manila Bay, where
their descendants can still be distinguished from the surrounding
Tagdlog population.

CHAPTER X.

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY AND DECLINE.
1663-1762.

Political Decline of the Philippines. — For the hundred
years succeeding the abandonment of the Moluccas, the
Philippines lost all political significance as a colony. From
almost every standpoint they were profitless to Spain.
There were continued deficits, which had to be made
good from the Mexican treasury. The part of Spain in
the conquest of the East was over, and the Philippines
became little more than a great missionary establish-
ment, presided over by the religious orders.

Death of Governor Salcedo by the Inquisition, — In
1663, Lara was succeeded by Don Diego de Salcedo. On
his arrival, Manila had high hopes of him, which were
speedily disappointed. He loaded the Acapulco galleon
with his own private merchandise, and then dispatched it
earlier than was usual, before the cargoes of the merchants
were ready. He engaged in a wearisome strife with the
archbishop, and seems to have worried the ecclesiastic,
who was aged and feeble, into his grave. At the end of
a few years he was hated by every one, and a conspiracy
against him was formed which embraced the religious,
the army, the civil official^, and the merchants. Beyond
the reach of the power of ordinary plotters, he fell a vic-
tim to the commissioner of the Inquisition.

The Spanish Inquisition, which wrought such cruelty
and misery in the Peninsula, was carried also to the
Spanish colonies. As we have seen, it was primarily the
function of the Dominican order to administer the institij-

212

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY. 1663-176^. 213

tion. The powers exercised by an inquisitor can scarcely
be understood at the present day. His methods were
secret, the charges were not made pubHc, the whole
proceedings were closeted, and yet so great were the
powers of this court that none could resist its authority,
or inquire into its actions. Spain forbade any heretics,
Jews, or Moors going to the colonies, and did the utmost
to prevent heresy abroad. She also' established in Amer-
ica the Inquisition itself. Fortunately, it never attained
the importance in the Philippines that it had hi Spain.
In the Philippines there was no "Tribunal," the institu-
tion being represented solely by a commissioner.

Death of the Governor. — In 1667, when the unpop-
ularity of Governor Salcedo was at its height, this com-
missioner professed to discover in him grounds of heresy
from the fact that he had been born in Flanders, and
decided to avenge the Church by encompassing his ruin.
By secret arrangement, the master of the camp withdrew
the guard from the palace, and the commissioner, with
several confederates, gained admission. The door of the
governor's room was opened by an old woman, who had
been terrified into complicity, and the governor was seized
sleeping, with his arms lying at the head of his bed.

The commissioner informed the governor that he was a
prisoner of the Holy Office. He was taken to the convent
of the Augustinians. Here he was kept in chains tmtil he
could be sent to Mexico, to appear before the Tribunal
there. The government in Mexico annulled the arrest of
the commissioner, but Salcedo died at sea on the return
of the vessel to the Philippines in 1669.

Colonization of the Ladrone Islands. — In 1668 a Jesuit
mission under Padre Diego Ijuis de Sanvltores was estab-
lished on the Ladrones, the first of the many mission

214 THE PHILIPPINES.

stations, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, in the South
Pacific. The islands at that time were well populated and
fertile, and had drawn the enthusiasm of Padre Sanvitores
in 1662 when he first sailed to the Philippines.

The hostility of the Manchus in China, the Japanese per-
secutions, and the abandonment of Mindanao had closed
many mission fields, and explains the eagerness with which
the Jesuits sought the royal permission to Christianize these
islands, which had been so constantly visited by Spanish
ships but never before colonized. With Padre Sanvitores
and his five Jesuit associates were a number of Christian
Filipino catechists.

Settlement of Guam. — • The mission landed at Guam,
and was favorably received. Society among these island-
ers was divided into castes. The chiefs were known as
chamorri, which has led to the natives of the Ladrones
being called "Chamorros." A piece of ground was given
the Jesuits for a church at the principal town called
Agadna (Agaiia), and here also a seminary was built for
the instruction of young men. The queen regent of
Spain, Maria of Austria, gave an annual sum to this school,
and in her honor the Jesuits changed the name of the
islands to the Marianas. The Jesuits preached on eleven
inhabited islands of the group, and in a year's time had
baptized thirteen thousand islanders and given instruc-
tion to twenty thousand.

Troubles with the Matives at Guam. — This first
year was the most successful in the history of the mission.
Almost immediately after, the Jesuits angered the islanders
by compulsory conversions. There were quarrels in several
places, and priests, trying to baptize children against the
wishes of their parents, were killed. In 1670 the Spaniards
were attacked, and obliged to fortify themselves at Agaiia.

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY. 1663-1762. 215

The Jesuits had a guard of a Spanish captain and
about thirty Spanish and FiUpino soldiers, who, after
some slaughter of the natives, compelled them to sue for
peace. The conditions imposed by the Jesuits were that
the natives should attend mass and festivals, have their
children baptized, and send them to be catechised. The
hatred of the natives was unabated, however, and in 1672
Sanvltores was killed by them. His biographer claims
that at his death he had baptized nearly fifty thousand of
these islanders.'

■ Depopulation of the Ladrone Islands. — About 1680
a governor was sent to the islands, and they were or-
ganized as a dependency of Spain. The policy of the
governors and the Jesuits was conversion by the sword.
The natives were persecuted from island to island, and in
the history of European settlements there is hardly one
that had more miserable consequences to the inhabitants.
Disease was introduced and swept off large numbers.
Others fell resisting the Spaniards, and an entire island
was frequently depopulated by order of the governor, or
the desire of the Jesuits to have the natives brought to
Guam. Many, with little doubt, fled to other archipelagoes.

If we can trust the Jesuit accounts, there were in the
whole, group one hundred thousand inhabitants when the
Spaniards arrived. A generation saw them almost ex-
tinct. Dampier, who touched at Guam in 1686, says
then that on the island, where the Spaniards had found
thirty thousand people, there were not above one himdred
natives. In 1716 and 1721 other voyagers announced the
number of inhabitants on Guam at two thousand, but
only one other island of the group was populated. When

' See the account of the ' ' Settlement of the Ladrones by the Span-
iards," in Burney's Voyages in the Pacific, vol. IIT.

216 THE PHILIPPINES.

Anson in 1742 visited Guam,' the number had risen to
four thousand, and there were a few hundred inhabitants
on Rota; but these seem to have been the whole popu-
lation. The original native population certainly very
nearly touched extinction. The islands were from time
to time colonized from the Philippines, and the present
population is very largely of Filipino blood.

Conflicts between Governor and Archbishop. — Mean-
while, in the Philippines the conflict of the governor with
the archbishop and the friars continued. The conduct of
both sides was selfish and outrageous. In 1683 the
actions of Archbishop Pardo became so violent and sedi-
tious that the Audiencia decreed his banishment to Pan-
gasinan or Cagayan. He was taken by force to Lingayan,
where he was well accommodated but kept imder surveil-
lance. The Dominicans retaliated by excommunication,
and the Audiencia thereupon banished the provincial of
the order from the Islands, and sent several other friars
to Mariveles.

But the year following, Governor Vargas was relieved
by the arrival of his successor, who was favorable to
the ecclesiastical side of the controversy. The archbishop
returned and assumed a high hand. He suspended and
excommunicated on all sides. The oidores were banished
from the city, and all died in exile in remote portions of
the archipelago. The ex-governor-general, Vargas, being
placed under the spiritual ban, sued for pardon and begged
that his repentance be recognized.

The archbishop sentenced him to stand daily for the
space of four months at the entrances to the churches of
the city and of the Parian, and in the thronged quarter of
Binondo, attired in the habit of a penitent, with a rope
about his neck and carrying a lighted candle in his hand.

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY. 166S~17-6S. 217

He was, however, able to secure a mitigation of this
sentence, but was required to hve absolutely alone in a
hut on an island in the Pasig River. He was sent a
prisoner to Mexico in 1689, but died upon the voyage.

The various deans and canons who had concurred in the
archbishop's banishment, as well as other religious with
whom the prelate had had dissensions, were imprisoned
or exiled. The bodies of two oidores were, on their death
and after their burial, disinterred and their bones pro-
faned.

Degeneration of the Colony under Church Rule. —
Archbishop Pardo died in 1689, but the strife and con-
fusion which had been engendered continued. There were
quarrels between the archbishop and the friars, between
the prelate and the governor. All classes seem to have
shared the bitterness and the hatred of these unhappy
dissensions.

The moral tone of the whole colony during the latter
part of the seventeenth century was lowered. Corruption
floiu-ished everywhere, and the vigor of the administra-
tion decayed. Violence went imrebuked, and the way
was open for the deplorable tragedy in which this strife
of parties culminated. Certainly no governor could have
been more supine, and shown greater incapacity and
weakness of character, than the one who ruled in the time
of Archbishop Pardo and those that succeeded him.

Improvements Made by Governor Bustamante. — En-
richment of the Treasury. — In the year 1717,- however,
came a governor of a different type, Fernando Manuel de
Bustamante. He was an old soldier, stern of character
and severe in his measures. He found the treasury robbed
and exhausted. Nearly the whole population of Manila
were in debt to the public funds. Bustamante ordered

218 ■ THE PHILIPPINES.

these amounts paid, and to compel their collection he
attached the cargo of silver arriving by the galleon from
Acapulco. This cargo was owned by the religious com-
panies, officials, and merchants, all of whom were in-
debted to the government. In one year of his vigorous
administration he raised the sum of three hundred thou-
sand pesos for the treasury.

With sums of money again at the disposal of the state,
Bustamante attempted to revive the decayed prestige and
commerce of the Islands.

Refounding of Zamboanga. — In 1718 he refounded and
rebuilt the presidio of Zamboanga. Not a year had passed,
since its abandonment years before, that the pirates from
Borneo and Mindanao had failed to ravage the Bisayas.
The Jesuits had petitioned regularly for its reestablish-
ment, and in 1712 the king had decreed its reoccupation.
The citadel was rebuilt on an elaborate plan under the direc-
tion of the engineer, Don Juan Sicarra. Besides the usual
barracks, storehouses, and arsenals, there were, within the
walls, a church, hospital, and cuartel for the Pampangan
soldiers. Sixty-one cannon were moimted upon the de-
fenses. Upon the petition of the Recollects, Bustamante
also established a presidio at Labo, at the southern point
of the island of Paragua, whose coasts were attacked by
the Moros from Sulu and Borneo.

Treaty with Siam. — In the same year he sent an em-
bassy to Siam, with the idea of stimulating the commerce
which had flourished a century before. The reception of
this embassy was most flattering; a treaty of peace, friend-
ship, and commerce was made, and on groimd ceded to
the Spaniards was begun the erection of a factory.

Improvements in the City of Manila. — How far this
brave and determined man might have revived the colony

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY. 1663-176S. 219

it is impossible to say. The population of Manila, both
ecclesiastical and civil, was at this time so sunk in cor-
ruption and so degenerate as to make almost impossible
any recuperation except under the rule of a man equally
determined as Bustamante, but ruling for a long period of
time. He had not hesitated to order investigations into
the finances of the Islands, which disclosed defalcations
amounting to seven hundred thousand pesos. He fear-
lessly arrested the defaulters, no matter what their station.
The whole city was concerned in these peculations, conse-
quently the utmost fear and apprehension existed on all
sides; and Bustamante, hated as well as dreaded, was
compelled to enforce his reforms single-handed.

His Murder. — He was opposed by the friars and defied
by the archbishop, but, notwithstanding ecclesiastical con-
demnation, he went to the point of ordering the arrest of
the prelate. The city rose in sedition, and a mob, headed
by friars, proceeded to the palace of the governor, broke
in upon him, and, as he faced them alone and without
support, killed him in cold blood (October 11, 1719).

The archbishop proclaimed himself governor and presi-
dent of the Audiencia. The oidores and officials who had
been placed under arrest by Bustamante were released,
and his work overthrown. The new government had
neither the courage nor the inclination to continue Busta-
mante's policy, and in 1720 the archbishop called a coun-
cil of war, which decreed the abandonment of the fort at
Labo.

When the news of this murder reached Spain, the king '
ordered an investigation and the punishment of the guilty,
and in 1721 Governor Torre Campo arrived to put these
mandates into execution. The culprits, however, were so
high and so influential that the governor did not dare

220 THE PHILIPPINES.

proceed against them; and although the commands of the
king were reiterated in 1724, the assassins of Biistamante
were never brought to justice.

Treaty with the Sultan of Jolo. — In spite of the cow-
ardly policy of the successors of Bustamante, the presidio
of Zamboanga was not abandoned. So poorly was it ad-
ministered, however, that it was not effective to. prevent
Moro piracy, and the attacks upon the Bisaya and Calar
mianes continued. In 1721 a treaty was formed with
the sultan of Jolo providing for trade between Manila and
Jolo, the return or ransom of captives, and the restitution
to Spain of the island of Basilan.

The Moro Pirates of Tawi Tawi. — To some extent this
treaty seems to have prevented assaults from Jolo, but in
1730 the Moros of Tawi Tawi fell upon Paragua and the
Calamianes, and in 1731 another expedition from the
south spent nearly a whole year cruising and destroying
among the Bisayas.

Deplorable State of Spanish Defenses. — The defenses
of the Spaniards during these many decades were contin-
ually in a deplorable state, their arms were wretched, and,
except in moments of great apprehension, no attention
was given to fortifications, to the preservation of artillery,
nor to the supply of ammunition. Sudden attacks ever
found the Spaniards unprepared. Military unreadiness
was the normal condition of this archipelago from these
early centuries down to the destruction of the Spanish
armament by the American fleet.

The Economic Policy of Spain. — Restrictions of Trade.
— During the closing years of the seventeenth century
and the beginning of the eighteenth, commerce seemed to
have been actually paralyzed. That brilliant trade which
is described by Morga, and which was at its height aboilt

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY. X66S-176S. 221

1605, was a few years later defeated by the miserable
economic policy of Spain, pandering to the demands of
the merchants of Cadiz and Seville.

Spain's economic policy had only in view benefits to
the Peninsula. "The Laws of the Indies" abound with
edicts for the purpose of limiting and crippling colonial
commerce and industry, wherever it was imagined that it
might be prejudicial to the protected industries of Spain.
The manufacturers of Seville wished to preserve the col-
onies, both of America and of the Indies, as markets for
their monopoly wares ; and in this policy, for two centuries,
they had the support of the crown. The growing trade
between Mexico and the Philippines had early been re-
garded with suspicion, and legislation was framed to reduce
it to the lowest point compatible with the existence of the
colony.

None of the colonies of America could conduct commerce
with the Philippines except Mexico, and here all communica-
tion must pass through the port of Acapulco. This trade
was limited to the passage of a single vessel a year. In 1605
two galleons were permitted, but their size was reduced
to three hundred tons. They were allowed to carry out
500,000 pesos of silver, but no more than 250,000 pesos'
worth of Chinese products could be returned. Neither
the Spaniards of Mexico nor any part of America could
traffic directly with China, nor could Spanish vessels pass
from Manila to the ports of Asia. Only those goods
could be bought which Chinese merchants themselves
brought to the Philippines.

Selfishness of Merchants in Spain. , — Even these re-
strictions did not satisfy the jealousy of the merchants of
Spain. They complained that the royal orders limiting
the traffic were not regarded, and they insisted upon so

222 THE PHILIPPINES.

vexatious a supervision of this commerce, and surrounded
infractions of the law with such terrible penalties, that
the trade was not maintained even to the amount per-
mitted by law. Spanish merchants even went to the
point of petitioning for the abandonment of the Philip-
pines, on the ground that the importations from China
were prejudicial to the industry of the Peninsula.

The colonists upon the Pacific coast of America suffered
from the lack of those commodities demanded by civilized
life, which could only reach them as they came from
Spain through the port of Porto Bello and the Isthmus
of Panama. Without question, an enormous and bene-
ficial commerce could have been conducted by the Philip-
pines with the provinces of western America.'

Trade Between South .America and the Philippines
Forbidden. — But this traffic was absolutely forbidden,
and to prevent Chinese and Philippine goods from enter-
ing South America, the trade between Mexico and Peru
was in 1636 wholly suppressed by a decree. This decree,
as it stands upon the pages of the great Recopilacion, is
a,n epitome of the insane economic policy of the Spaniard.
It cites that whereas "it had been permitted that from
Peru to New Spain there should go each year two vessels
for commerce and traffic to the amount of two hundred
thousand ducats [which later had been reduced to one
hundred thousand ducats], and because there had in-
creased in Peru to an excessive amount the commerce in
the fabrics of China, in spite of the many prohibitions
that had been imposed, and in order absolutely to remove

■ Some of the benefits of such a trade are set forth by the Jesuit,
Alonzo de Ovalle, in his Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Chili,
printed in Rome, 1649. In Churchill's Collection of Voyages and
Travels, vol. III.

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY. 1663-1762. 223

the occasion for the future, we order and command the
officers of Peru and New Spain that they invariably pro-
hibit and suppress this commerce and traffic between the
two kingdoms by all the channels through which it is
conducted, maintaining this prohibition firmly and con-
tinually for the future." '

In 1718 the merchants of Seville and Cadiz still com-
plained that their profits were being injured by even the
limited importation of Chinese silks into Mexico. There-
upon absolute prohibition of import of Chinese silks,
either woven or in thread, was decreed. Only linens,
spices, and supplies of such things as were not produced
in Spain could be brought into Mexico. This order was
reaffirmed in 1720, with the provision that six months
would be allowed the people of Mexico to consume the
Chinese silks which they had in their possession, and
thereafter all such goods must be destroyed.

Ineffectiveness of These Restrictions. — These meas-
ures, while ruining the commerce of the Philippines,
were as a matter of fact ineffective to accomplish the
result desired. Contraband trade between China and
America sprang up in violation of the law. Silks to the
value of four milhon pesos were annually smuggled into
America.^ In 1734 the folly and uselessness of such laws
was somewhat recognized by the Council of the Indies,
and a cedula was issued restoring the permission to trade
in Chinese silks and raising the value of cargoes destined
for Acapulco to five hundred thousand pesos, and the
quantity of silver for return to one million pesos. The
celebrated traffic of the galleon was resumed and continued
xmtil the year 1815.

1 Recopilaeion de Leyes de las Indias, lib. VIII., titulo 45, ley 78.
' Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 460.

224 THE PHILIPPINES.

An Attempt to Colonize the Carolines. — Southeastward
of the PhiHppines, in that part of the Pacific which is
known as Micronesia, there is an archipelago of small
islands called the Carolines. The westernmost portion of
the group also bear the name of the Pelews, or Palaos.
Inasmuch as these islands were eventually acquired by
Spain and remained in her possession down to the year
1898, it may be well to state something at this time of
the attempt made by the Jesuits in 1731 to colonize them.

Certain of these little islands were seen several times by
expeditions crossing the Pacific as early as the latter part
of the sixteenth century, but after the trade between
Mexico and the Philippines had been definitely settled
upon, a fixed course was followed westward from Acapulco
to Guam, from which there was little variation, and dur-
ing the seventeenth century these islands passed quite
out of mind; but in the year 1696 a party of natives,
twenty men and ten women, were driven by storms far
from their home in the Carolines upon the eastern coast
of Samar. It seems that similar parties of castaways
from the Pelew and Caroline Islands had been known to
reach Mindanao and other parts of the Philippines at an
even earlier date. These last came under the observation
of the Jesuit priests on Samar, who baptized them, and,
learning from them of the archipelago from which they
had been carried, were filled with missionary ambition
to visit and Christianize these Pacific islanders.

This idea was agitated by the Jesuits, until about
1730 royal permission was granted to the enterprise. A
company of Jesuits in the following year sailed for the
Ladrones and thence south until the Carolines were discov-
ered. They landed on a small island not far from Yap.
Here they succeeded in baptizing numerous natives and

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY. 166S-176S. 225

in establishing a mission. Fourteen of their number,
headed by the priest, Padre Cantava, remained on the
island while the expedition returned to secure reenforce-
ments and supplies. Unfortunately, this succor was de-
layed for more than a year, and when Spanish vessels
with missionary reinforcements on board again reached
the Carolines in 1733, the mission had been entirely de-
stroyed and the Spaniards, with Padre Cantava, had been
killed. These islands have been frequently called the
"New Philippines."

Conditions of the Filipinos during the Eighteenth Cen-
tury. — During the most of the eighteenth century, data
are few upon the condition of the Filipino people. There
seems to have been little progress. Conditions certainly
were against the social or intellectual advance of the
native race. Perhaps, however, their material well-being
was quite as great during these years, when Httle was
attempted, as during the governorships of the more ambi-
tious and enterprising Spaniards who had characterized
the earlier period of Philippine history.

Provincial Governments. — Provincial administration
seems to have fallen almost wholly into the hands of the
missionaries. The priests made themselves the local rulers
throughout the Christianized portion of the archipelago.

Insurrection in Bohol. — Insurrection seems especially
to have troubled the island of Bohol during most of the
eighteenth century, and in 1750 an insurrection broke out
which practically established the independence of a large
portion of the island, and which was not suppressed for
thirty-five years. The trouble arose in the town of Ina-
banga, where the Jesuit priest Morales had greatly antag-
onized and imbittered the natives by his severity. Some
apostasized, and went to the hills. One of these men was

226 THE PHILIPPINES.

killed by the orders of the priest and his body refused
Christian burial, and left uncared for and exposed.

A brother of this man, named Dog6hoy, infuriated by
this indignity, headed a sedition which shortly included
three thousand natives. The priest was killed, and his own
body left by the road unburied. In spite of the efforts of
the alcalde of Cebu, Dogohoy was able to maintain him-
self, and practically established a small native state, which
remained until the occupation of the island by the Recol-
lects, after the Jesuits had been expelled from the Span-
ish dominions.

Activity of the Jesuits. — During the eighteenth century
the Jesuits alone of the religious orders seemed to have
been active in prosecuting their efforts and seeking new
fields for conversion. The sloth and inactivity which
overcame the other orders place in greater contrast
the ambition and the activities, both secular and spiritual,
of the Jesuits.

Conversion of the Sultan Alim ud Din. — In 1747
they established a mission even on Jolo. They were
unable to overcome the intense antagonism of the Moro
panditas and datos, but they apparently won the young
sultan, Alim ud Din, whose strange story and shifting
fortunes have been variously told. One of the Jesuits,
Padre Villelmi, was skilled in the Arabic language, and
this familiarity with the language and literature of Mo-
hammedanism doubtless explains his ascendency over the
mind of the sultan. Alim ud Din was not a strong man.
His power over the subordinate datos was small, and in
1748 his brother, Bantilan, usurped his place and was
proclaimed sultan of Jolo.

Alim ud Din, with his family and numerous escort, came
to Zamboanga, seeking the aid of the Spanish against

A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY. 1663~176S. 227

his brother. From Zamboanga he was sent to Manila.
On his arrival, January 3, 1749, he was received with all
the pomp and honor due to a prince of high rank. A
house for his entertainment and his retinue of seventy per-
sons was prepared in Binondo. A pubUc entrance was
arranged, which took place some fifteen days after his
reaching the city. Triumphal arches were erected across
the streets, which were lined with more than two thousand
native militia under arms. The sultan was publicly re-
ceived in the hall of the Audiencia, where the governor
promised to lay his case before the king of Spain. The
sultan was showered with presents, which included chains
of gold, fine garments, precious gems, and gold canes,
while the government sustained the expense of his
household.^

Following this reception, steps were taken for his con-
version. His spiritual advisers cited to him the example
of the Emperor Constantine whose conversion enabled him
to effect triumphant conquests over his enemies. Under
these representations Alim ud Din expressed his desire for
baptism. The governor-general, who at this time was a
priest, the bishop of Nueva Segovia, was very anxious
that the rite should take place; but this was opposed by
his spiritual superior, the archbishop of Manila, who, with
some others, entertained doubts as to the sincerity of the
sultan's profession.

In order to accomplish his baptism, the governor
sent him to his own diocese, where at Paniqui, on the
29th of April, 1750, the ceremony took place with great
solemnity. On the return of thp party to Manila, the
sultan was received with great pomp, and in his honor

' Relacion de la Entrada del Sultan Rey de Jolo, in Archivo del
Bihlidfilo Filipino, vol. I.

228 THE PHILIPPINES.

were held games, theatrical representations, fire-works, and
bull-fights. This was the high-water mark of the sultan's
popularity.

Failure to Reinstate Alim ud Din. — Meanwhile the
usurper, Bantilan, was giving abundant evidence of his
hostility. The Spaniards were driven from Jolo, and the
fleets of the Moros again ravaged the Bisayas. In July
arrived the new governor, the Marquis of Obando, who
determined to restore Alim ud Din and suppress the Moro
piracy.

An expedition set sail, with the sultan on board,
and went as far as Zamboanga, but accomplished noth-
ing. Here the conduct of the sultan served to confirm
the doubts of the Spaniards as to the sincerity of his
friendship. He was arrested, and returned to Manila, and
imprisoned in the fortress of Santiago. With varying
treatment he remained in the hands of the Spaniards
until 1763, when he was returned to Jolo by the English.

Great Increase in Moro Piracy. — The year 1754.is stated
to have been the bloodiest in the history of Moro piracy.
No part of the Bisayas escaped ravaging in this year,
while the Camarines, Batangas, and Albay suffered equally
with the rest. The conduct of the pirates was more than or-
dinarily cruel. Priests were slain, towns wholly destroyed,
and thousands of captives were carried south into Moro
slavery. The condition of the Islands at the end of this
year was probably the most deplorable in their history.

Reforms under General Arandla. — The demoralization
and misery with which Obando's rule closed were reheved
somewhat by the capable government of Arandia, who
succeeded him. Arandla was one of the few men of
talent, energy, and integrity who stood at the head of
affairs in these islands during two centuries.

A CENTURY 'OF OBSCURITY. 166S-1762. 229

He reformed the greatly disorganized military force,
establishing what was known as the "Regiment of the
King," made up very largely of Mexican soldiers. He also
formed a corps of artillerists composed of Filipinos.
These were regular troops, who received from Arandia
sufficient pay to enable them to live decently and like an
army.

He reformed the arsenal at Cavite, and, in spite of
opposition on all sides, did something to infuse efficiency
and honesty into the, government. At the head of the
armament which had been sent against the Mores he
placed a Jesuit priest. Father Ducos. A capable officer
was also sent to command the presidio at Zamboanga,
and while Moro piracy was not stopped, heavy retaliation
was visited upon the pirates.

Arandia's most popular act of government was the
expulsion of the Chinese from the provinces, and in large
part from the city. They seem to have had in their
hands then, perhaps even more than now, the commerce
or small trade between Manila and provincial towns. To
take over this trade, Arandia founded a commercial com-
pany of Spaniards and mestizos, which lasted only for a
year. The Christianized Chinese were allowed to remain
imder license, and for those having shops in Manila
Arandia founded the Alcayceria of San Fernando. It
consisted of a great square of shops built about an open
interior. It stood in Binondo, on the present Calle de
San Fernando, in what is still a populous Chinese quarter.

Death of Arandia and Decline of the Colony. — Arandia
died in May, 1759, and the government was assumed by
the bishop of Cebu, who in turn was forced from his
position by the arrival of the archbishop of "Manila, Don
Manuel Rojo. The archbishop revoked the celebrated

230 THE PHILIPPINES:

orders of good government which Arandia had put' into
force, and the colony promised to relapse once more into
its customary dormant condition. This was,, however,
prevented by an event which brought to an end the long
period of obscurity and inertia under which the colony
had been gradually decaying, and introduced, in a way, a
new period of its history. This was the capture of the
Philippine Islands by the British in 1762.

CHAPTER XI.

THE PHILIPPINES DURING THE PERIOD OF
EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 1762-1837.

The New Philosophy of the Eighteenth Century. — The

middle of the. eighteenth century in Europe was a time
when ideas were greatly liberalized. A philosophy be-
came current which professed to look for its authority
not to churches or hereditary custom and privilege, but
to the laws of God as they are revealed in the natural
world. Men taught that if we could only follow nature
we could not do wrong. "Natural law" became the basis
for a great amount of political and social discussion and
the theoretical foundation of many social rights. The
savage, ungoverned man was by many European philoso-
phers and writers supposed to live a freer, more whole-
some and more natural life than the man who is bound
by the conventions of society and the laws of state.

Most of this reasoning we now know to be scientifically
untrue. The savage and the hermit are not, in actual
fact, types of human happiness and freedom. Ideal life
for man is found only in governed society, where there is
order and protection, and where also should be freedom of
opportimity. But to the people of the eighteenth cen-
tury, and especially to the scholars of France, where the
government was monarchical and oppressive, and where
the people were terribly burdened by the aristocracy, this
teaching was welcomed as a new gospel. Nor was it de-
void of grand and noble ideas — ideas which, carried out
in a conservative way, might have bettered society.

It is from this philosophy and the revolution which

231

232 THE PHILIPPINES.

succeeded it that the world received the modem ideas
of Hberty, equality, fraternity, and democracy. These
ideas, having done their work in America and Europe,
are here at work in the Philippines to-day. It remains
to be seen whether a society can be rebuilt here on these
principles, and whether Asia too will be reformed under
their influence.

Colonial Conflicts between the Great European Coun-
tries. — During the latter half of the eighteenth century
there culminated the long struggle for colonial empire
between European states which we have been following.
We have seen how colonial conquest was commenced by
the Portuguese, who were very shortly followed by the
Spaniards, and how these two great Latin powers at-
tempted to exclude the other European peoples from the
rich Far East and the great New World which they had
discovered.

We have seen how this attempt failed, how the Dutch
and the English broke in upon this gigantic reserve, drove
the Spanish fleets from the seas, and despoiled and
took of this great empire almost whatever they would.
The Dutch and English then fought between themselves.
The English excluded the Dutch from North America,
capturing their famous colony of New Amsterdam, now
New York, and incorporating it (1674) with their other
American colonies, which later became the United States
of America. But in the East Indies the Dutch main-
tained their trade and power, gradually extending from
island to island, until they gained — what they still pos-
sess — an almost complete monopoly of spice production.

War between England and France. — In India, England
in the eighteenth century won great possessions and laid
the foundation for what has been an almost complete

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 233

subjugation of this Eastern empire. Here, however, and
even more so than in America, England encountered
a royal and brilhant antagonist in the monarch of
France.

French exploration in North America had given France
claims to the two great river systems of the St. Lawrence
and the Mississippi, the latter by far the greatest and
richest region of the temperate zone. So, during much
of this eighteenth century, England and France were in-
volved in wars that had for their prizes the possession
of the continent of North America and the great penin-
sula of India.

This conflict reached its climax between 1756 and 1763.
Both states put forth all their strength. France called to
her support those countries whose reigning families were
allied to her by blood, and in this way Spain was drawn
into the struggle. The monarchs of both France and
Spain belonged to the great house of Bourbon. War was
declared between England and Spain in 1761. Spain was
totally unfitted for the combat. She could inflict no in-
jury upon England and simply lay impotent and helpless
to retaliate, while English fleets in the same year took
Havana in the west and Manila in the east.

English Victory over French in India and America.
— English power in India was represented during these
years by the greatest and most striking figure in Eng-
land's colonial history — Lord Clive. To him is due the
defeat of France in India, the capture of her possessions,
and the founding of the Indian Empire, which is still
regarded as England's greatest possession. The French
were expelled from India in the same year that the great
citadel of New France in America — Quebec — was taken
by the English under General Wolfe.

234

THE PHILIPPINES.

The Philippines under the English. — Expedition from
India to the Philippines. — Lord Clive was now free
to strike a blow at France's ally, Spain; and in Madras
an expedition was prepared to destroy Spanish power in
the Philippines. Notice of the preparation of this expe-
dition reached Manila from several sources in the spring
and summer of 1762 ; but with that fatality which pur-

Church at Halate.

sued the Spaniard to the end of his history in the Philip-
pines, no preparations were made by him, until on the 22d
of September a squadron of thirteen vessels anchored in
Manila Bay.

Through the mist, the stupid and negligent authorities
of Manila mistook them for Chinese trading-junks; but it
was the fleet of the English Admiral Cornish, with a force
of five thousand British and Indian soldiers xmder the com-
mand of General Draper. For her defense Manila had

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 235

only 550 men of the "Regiment of the King" and eighty
Filipino artillerists. Yet the Spaniards determined to
make resistance from behind the walls of the city.

Surrender of Manila to the English. — The English
disembarked and occupied Malate. From the churches of
Malate, Ermita, and Santiago the British bombarded
Manila, and the Spaniards replied from the batteries of
San Andres and San Diego, the firing not being very effec-
tive on either side.

On the 25th, Draper summoned the city to surrender;
but a council of war, held by the archbishop, who was also
governor, decided to fight on. Thirty-six hundred Fili-
pino militia from Pampanga, Bulacan, and Laguna
marched to the defense of the city, and on the 3rd
of October two thousand of these Filipinos made a sally
from the walls and recklessly assaulted the English lines,
but were driven back with slaughter. On the night of
the 4th of October a breach in the walls was made by
the artillery, and early in the morning of the 5th four
hundred English soldiers entered ahnost without resis-
tance. A company of militia on guard at the Puerto Real
was bayoneted and the English then occupied the Plaza,
and here received the surrender of the fort of Santiago.

The English agreed not to interfere with religious
liberty, and honors of war were granted to the Spanish
soldiers. Guards were placed upon the convent of the
nuns of Santa Clara and the beaterios, and the city was
given over to pillage, which lasted for forty hours, and
in which many of the Chinese assisted.

Independent Spanish Capital under Anda at Bu-
lacan. — The English were thus masters of the city, but
during their period of occupation they never extended
their power far beyond the present limits of Manila. Pre-

236 THE PHILIPPINES.

vious to the final assault and occupation of Manila, the
authorities had nominated the oidor, Don Simon de Anda y
Salazar, lieutenant-governor and captain-general of the
Islands, with instructions to maintain the country in its
obedience to the king of Spain. Anda left the capital on
the night of October 4, passing in a little banca through
the nipa swamps and esteros on the north shore of Manila
Bay to the provincial capital of Bulacan.

Here he called together the provincial of the Augus-
tinian monks, the alcalde mayor of the province, and some
other Spaniards. They resolved to form an independent
government representing Spain, and to continue the resis-
tance. This they were able to do as long as the British
remained in the Islands. The English made a few short
expeditions into Bulacan and up the Pasig River, but
there was no hard fighting and no real effort made to
pursue Anda's force. The Chinese welcomed the English
and gave them some assistance, and for this Anda slew
and hung great numbers of them.

The Philippines Returned to Spain. — By the Treaty
of Paris in 1763, peace was made, by which France sur-
rendered practically all her colonial possessions to Eng-
land; but England returned to Spain her captures in
Cuba and the Philippines. In March, 1764, there arrived
the Spanish frigate "Santa Rosa," bringing the first
" Lieutenant of the King for the Islands," Don Francisco de
la Torre, who brought with him news of the Treaty of
Paris and the orders to the English to abandon the Islands.

Resistance of the English hy the Friars. — In re-
sistance to the English and in the efforts to maintain
Spanish authority, a leading part had been taken by the
friars. " T he sacred orders," says Martinez de Zuiiiga,'

' Historia de Filipinas, p. 682.

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 237

"had much to do with the success of Senor Anda. They
maintained the Indians of their respective administrations
loyal to the orders; they inspired the natives with horror
against the Enghsh as enemies of the king and of religion,
inciting them to die fighting to resist them; they contrib-
uted their estates and their property; and they exposed
their own persons to great dangers." The friars were cer-
tainly most interested in retaining possession of the Islands
and had most to lose by their falling into English hands.

Increase of the Jesuits in Wealth and Power. — In this
zealous movement for defense, however, the Jesuits bore
no part; and there were charges made against them of
treasonable intercourse with the English, which may
have had foundation, and which are of significance in
the light of what subsequently occurred.

At the close of the eighteenth century, all the governments
of Catholic Europe were aroused with jealousy and sus-
picious hatred against the Jesuits. The society, organized
primarily for missionary labor, had gradually taken on much
of a secular character. The society was distinguished, as
we have seen in its history in the Philippines, by men
with great capacity and liking for what we may call prac-
tical affairs as distinguished from purely religious or de-
votional life. The Jesuits were not alone missionaries
and orthodox educators, but they were scientists, geog-
raphers, fmanciers, and powerful and almost independent
administrators among heathen peoples. They had en-
gaged so extensively and shrewdly in trade that their
estates, warehouses, and exchanges bound together the
fruitful fields of colonial provinces with the busy marts
and money-centers of Europe. Their wealth was believed
to be enormous. Property invested and carefuUy guarded,
it was rapidly increasing.

238 THE PHILIPPINES.

What, however, made the order exasperating alike to
rulers and peoples were the powerful political intrigues
in which members of the order engaged. Strong and
masterful men themselves, the field of state affairs was
irresistibly attractive. Their enemies charged that they
were unscrupulous in the means which they employed to
accomplish political ends. It is quite certain that the
Jesuits were not patriotic in their piu-poses or plans.
They were an international corporation; their members
belonged to no one nation; to them the Society was greater
and more worthy of devotion than any state, in which
they themselves lived and worked.

Dissolution of the Society of Jesus. — Europe had, how-
ever, reached the belief, to which it adheres to-day, that
a man must be true to the country in which he lives and
finds shelter and protection and in which he ranks as a
political member, or else incur odimn and punishment.
Thus it was their indifference to national feeling that
brought about the ruin of the Jesuits. It is significant
that the rulers, the most devoted to Catholicism, followed
one another in decreeing their expulsion from their
dominions. In 1759 they were expelled from Portugal,
in 1764 from France, and April 2, 1767, the decree of con-
fiscation and banishment from Spain and all Spanish
possessions was issued by King Carlos III. Within a
year thereafter, the two most powerful princes of Italy,
the king of Naples and the Duke of Parma, followed, and
then the Grand Master of the Knights of Malta expelled
them from that island. , The friends of the order wera
powerless to withstand this united front of Catholic mon-
archs, and in July, 1773, Pope Clement XIV. suppressed
and dissolved the society, which was not restored until
1814.

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 239

The Jesuits Expelled from the Philippines. — The order
expelling the Jesuits from the Philippines was put into
effect in the year 1767. The instructions authorized the
governor in case of resistance to use force of arms as
against a rebellion/ Besides their colleges in Manila,
Tondo, Cavite, Leyte, Samar, Bohol, and Negros, the
Jesuits administered ciu-acies in the vicinity of Manila, in
Cavite province, in Mindoro and Marinduque, while the
islands of Bohol, Samar, and Leyte were completely under
their spiritual jurisdiction. In Mindanao their missions,
a dozen or more in nimiber, were found on both the north-
ern and southern coasts. Outside of the Philippines
proper they were the inissionaries on the Ladrones, or
Marianas. Their property in the Philippines, which was
confiscated by the government, amounted to 1,320,000
pesos, although a great deal of their wealth was secreted
and escaped seizure through the connivance of the gov-
ernor, Raon.

Governor Anda's Charges against the Religious Orders.
— Don Simon de Anda had been received in Spain with
great honor for, the defense which he had made in the
Islands, and in 1770 returned as governor of the Philip-
pines. His appointment was bitterly resented by the
friars. In 1768, Anda had addressed to the king a memo-
rial upon the disorders in the Philippines, in which he
openly charged the friars with commercialism, neglect of
their spiritual duties, oppression of the natives, opposi-
tion to the teaching of the Spanish language, and scanda-
lous interference with civil officials and affairs. Anda's
remedy for these abuses was the rigorous enforcement of

' These orders and other documents dealing with the Jesuit expul-
sion are printed in Montero y Vidal, Historia de Filipinas, vol. II.
p. 180 sq.

240

THE PHILIPPINES.

the laws actually existing for the punishment of such con-
duct and the return to Spain of friars who refused to
respect the law.

He was, however, only partially successful in his policy.
During the six years of his rule, he labored unremittingly
to restore the Spanish government and to lift it from the
decadence and corruption that had so long characterized

<^-- ■• ragji^y . ■

Anda Monument.

it. There were strong traits of the modern man in this
independent and incorruptible official. If he made many
enemies, it is, perhaps, no less to the credit of his char-
acter;' and if in the few years of his official life he was
unable to restore the colony, it must be remembered that
he had few assistants upon whom to rely and was without
adequate means.

The Moro Pirates. — The Moros were again upon their
forays, and in 1771 even attacked Aparri, on the extreme

PERIOD OP EUROPEAN REVOLUTION.

241

northern coast of Luzon, and captured a Spanish mission-
ary. Anda reorganized the Armada de Pintados, and
toward the end
of his life created
also the Marina
Sutil, a fleet of hght
gunboats for the
defense of the
coasts against the
attacks of pirates.

Failure of an
English Settle-
ment, — The hos-
tility of the Moro
rulers was compli-
cated by the inter-
ference of the Eng-
lish, who, after the
evacuation of Ma-
nila, continued to
haunt the Sulu archipelago with the apparent object of
effecting a settlement. By treaty with the Moro datos,

they secured the ' ces-
sion of the island of
Balanbangan, off the
north coast of Borneo.
This island was forti-
fied and a factory was
established, but in
1775 the Moros at-
tacked the English
with great fury and destroyed the entire garrison, ex-
cept the governor and five others, who escaped on board

Calinga Axe.

Moro Brass Vessel.

242 THE PHILPPIINES.

a vessel, leaving a great quantity of arms and wealth to
the spoils of the Moros. The English factors, who had
taken up business on the island of Jolo, fled in a Chinese
junk; and these events, so unfortunate to the English,
ended their attempts to gain a position in the Jolo archi-
pelago until many years later.

Increase in Agriculture. — Anda died in October, 1776,
and his successor, Don Jose Basco de Vargas, was not
appointed until July, 1778. With Basco's governorship
we see the beginning of those numerous projects for the
encouragement of agriculture and industry which charac-
terized the last century of Spanish rule. His "Plan
general economico" contemplated the encouragement of
cotton-planting, the propagation of mulberry-trees and
silk-worms, and the cultivation of spices and sugar. Pre-
miums were offered for success in the introduction of these
new products and for the encouragement of manufactur-
ing industries suitable to the country and its people.

Out of these plans grew the admirable Sociedad Eco-
nomica de Amigos del Pais, which was founded by
Basco in 1780. The idea was an es^cellent one, and the
society, although suffering long periods of inactivity,
lasted for fully a century, and from time to time was
useful in the improvement and development of the
country, and stimulated agricultural experiments through
its premiums and awards.

Establishment of the Tohacco Industry. — Up to this
time the Philippine revenues had been so unproductive
that the government was largely supported by a sub-
sidy of 1250,000 a year paid by Mexico. Basco was the
first to put the revenues of the Islands upon a lucrative
basis. To him was due the establishment, in 1782, of the
famous tobacco monopoly (estanco de tabacos) which be-

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION.

243

^^^^mUm'-

Igorrote Drum.

came of great im-
portance many years
later, as new and
rich tobacco lands
like the C a g a y a n
were brought under
cultivation.

Favorable Com-
mercial Legisla-
tion. — The change
in economic ideas,
which had come over
Europe through the
liberalizing thought
of the eighteenth century, is shown also by a most ra-
dical step to direct into new channels
the commerce of the Philippines. This
was the creation in 1785 of a great trad-
ing corporation with special privileges and
crown protection, "The Royal Company
of the Philippines."

The company was given a complete
monopoly of all the commerce between
Spain and the Philippines, except the
long-established direct traffic between Ma-
nila and Acapulco. All the old laws,
designed to prevent the importation into
the Peninsula of wares of the Orient,
were swept away. Philippine products
were exempted from all customs duty
either on leaving Manila or entering
Spain. The vessels of the company were
permitted to visit the ports of China, and the ancient

Igorrote Shield.

244 THE PHILIPPINES.

and absurd prohibition, which prevented the merchants
of Manila from trading with India and China, was re-
moved.

Though still closing the Philippines against foreign
trade, this step was a veritable revolution in the com-
mercial legislation of the Philippines. Had the project
been ably and heartily supported, it might have pro-
duced a development that would have advanced pros-
perity half a century; but the people of Manila did not
welcome the opening of this new line of communica-
tion. The ancient commerce with Acapulco was a val-
uable monopoly to those who had the right to participate
in it, and their attitude toward the new company was
one either of indifference or hostility.

In 1789 the port of Manila was opened and made free
to the vessels of all foreign nations for the space of three
years, for the importation and sale exclusively of the
wares of Asia; but the products of Europe, with the ex-
ception of Spain, were forbidden.

The Royal Company was rechartered in 1805, and en-
joyed its monopoly until 1830, when its privileges lapsed
and Manila was finally opened to the ships of foreign
nations.

Conquest of the Igorrote Provinces of Luzon. — Basco
was a zealous governor and organized a number of mili-
tary expeditions to occupy the Igorrote country in the
north. In 1785 the heathen Igorrotes of the missions of
Ituy and Paniqui in Nueva Vizcaya revolted and had to
b^ reconquered by a force of musketeers from Cagayan.

Conquest of the Batanes Islands. — Basco also effected
the conquest of the Batanes Islands to the north of Luzon,
establishing garrisons and definitely annexing them to
the colony. The Dominican missionaries long before this

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 245

time had attempted to convert these islands to Chris-
tianity, but the poverty of the people and the fierceness
of the typhoons which sweep these little islands prevented
the cultivation of anything more than camotes and taro,
and had made them unprofitable to hold. Basco was
honored, however, for his reoccupation of these islands,
and on his return to Spain, at the .expiration of his gov-
ernorship, received the title of " Count of the Conquest of
the Batanes." *

A Scientific Survey of the Coast of the Islands. — About
1790 the Philippines were visited by two Spanish frigates,
the "Descubierta" and the "Atrevida," under the com-
mand of Captain Malaspina. These vessels formed an
exploring expedition sent out by the Spanish government
to make a hydrographic and astronomic survey of the
coasts of Spanish America, the Ladrones, and the Philip-
pines. It was one of those creditable enterprises for the
widening of scientific knowledge which modern govern-
ments have successively and with great honor conducted.

The expedition charted the Strait of San Bernardino,
the coasts of several of the Bisayan Islands, and Mindanao.
One of the scientists of the party was the young botanist,
Don Antonio Pineda, who died in Ilocos in 1792, but whose
studies in the flora of the Philippines thoroughly estab-
lished his reputation. A monument to his memory was
erected near the church in Malate, but it has since suffered
from neglect and is now falling in ruins.

Establishment of a Permanent Navy in the Philippines.
— The intentions of England in- this archipelago were still
regarded with suspicion by the Spanish government, and

' But the conquest was almost valueless, and a few years later the
inhabitants had to be transported to Cagayan because of the scarcity
of food.

246

THE PHILIPPINES.

Filipino Creese and Sheath.

in 1795 and 1796 a strong Spanish fleet, sent secretly by
way of the coast of South America, was concentrated in
the waters of the PhiUppines under the command of Ad-
miral Alava. Its object was the defense of the Islands in

case of a new
war with Great
Britain. News
of the declara-
tion of war be-
tween these
two countries
reached Manila
in March, 1797,
but though for many months there was anxiety, Eng-
land made no attempt at reoccupation. These events led,
however, to the formation of a permanent naval squad-
ron, with h e a d-
quarters and naval
station at Cavite/

The Climax of
More Piracy. —
The continued
presence of the
Moros in Min-
doro, where they
haimted the bays and rivers of both east and west coasts

Moro Creeses.

' Alava made a series of journeys through the different provinces
of the Philippines, and on these trips he was accompanied by Friar
Martinez de Zuniga, whose narrative of these expeditions forma a
most interesting and valuable survey of the conditions of the Islands
and the people at tlie beginning of the nineteenth century. "Esta-
dismo de las Islas Filipinas, 6 mis viajes por este pais, por el Padre
Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga. Publica esta obra por primera vez
extensamente anotada W, E. Retana." 2 vols. Madrid, 1893.

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION.

247

for months at a time, stealing out from this island for
attack in every direction, was specially noted by Padre
Zimiga, and indicated how feebly the Spaniards repulsed
these pirates a hundred years ago.

It was the last severe phase of Malay piracy, when
even the strong merchant ships of England and America
dreaded the straits of Borneo and
passed with caution through the
China Sea. Northern Borneo, the
Sulu archipelago, and the southern
coasts of Mindanao were the centers
from which came these fierce sea-
wolves, whose cruel exploits have
left their many traditions in the
American and British merchant na-
vies, just as they periodically appear
in the chronicles of the Philippines.

Five hundred captives annually
seem to have been the spoils taken
by these Moros in the Philippines Is-
lands, and as far south as Batavia
and Macassar captive Filipinos were
sold in the slave marts of the Ma-
lays. The aged and infirm were in-
humanly bartered to the savage
tribes of Borneo, who offered them
up in their ceremonial sacrifices. The measm-es of the
Spanish government, though constant and expensive, were
ineffective. Between 1778 and 1793, a million and a half
of pesos were expended on the fleets and expeditions to
drive back or punish the Moros, but at the end of the
century a veritable climax of piracy was attained.

Pirates swarmed continually about the coasts of Min-

Moro Fish Spear.

248

THE PHILIPPINES.

doro, Burias, and Masbate, and even frequented " the
esteros of Manila Bay. Some sort of peace seems to have
been established with Jolo and a friendly commerce was
engaged in toward the end of the century, but the Moros
of Mindanao and Borneo were increasing enemies. In
1798 a fleet of twenty-five Moro bancas passed up the
Pacific coast of Luzon and fell upon the isolated towns of
Paler, Casiguran, and Palanan, destroying the pueblos

and taking 450 cap-
tives. The cura of
Casiguran was ran-
somed in Binangonan
for the sum of twenty-
five hundred pesos.
For four years this
pirate fleet had its
rendezvous on Bu-
rias, whence it raided
the adjacent coasts
and the Catanduanes.
The Great Wars in
America and Europe.
— The English reoc-
cupied Balanbangan in 1803, but held the island for
only three years, when it was definitely abandoned. For
some years, however, the coasts of the Philippines were
threatened by English vessels,- and there was reflected
here in the Far East the tremendous conflicts which were
convulsing Europe at this time. The wars which changed
Europe at the close of the eighteenth century, following
the French Revolution, form one of the most important
and interesting periods of European history, but it is
also one of the most difficult periods to judge and de-

Moro Musical Instrument.

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 249

scribe. We will say of it here only so much as will be
sufficient to show the effect upon Spain and so upon the
Philippines.

The Revolution of the English Colonies in America. —
In 1776 the thirteen English colonies on the Atlantic coast
of North America declared their independence of Great
Britain. In the unfair treatment of the British king and
Parliament they had, they believed, just grounds for revo-
lution. For nearly eight years a war continued by which
England strove to reduce them again to obedience. But
at the end of that time England, having successively lost
two armies of invasion by defeat and capture, made peace
with the American colonists and recognized their inde-
pendence. In 1789 the Americans framed their present
constitution and established the United States of America.

The French Revolution. — Condition of the People
in France. — In their struggle for independence the
Americans had been aided by France, who hoped through
this opportunity to cripple her great colonial rival, Eng-
land. Between America and France there was close sym-
pathy of political ideas and theories, although in their
actual social conditions the two countries were as widely
separated as could be. In America the society and gov-
ernment were democratic. All classes were experienced
in politics and government. They had behind them the
priceless heritage of England's long struggle for free and
representative government. There was ari abundance of
the necessaries of life and nearly complete freedom of
opportunity.

France, like nearly every other country of continental
Em-ope, was suffering from the obsolete burden of feuda-
lism. The ownership of the land was divided between
the aristocracy and the church. The great bulk of the

250 THE PHILIPPINES.

population were serfs bound to the estates, miserably op-
pressed, and suffering from lack of food, and despoiled
of almost every blessing which can brighten and dignify
huinan life. The life of the court and of the nobility
grew more luxurious, extravagant, and selfish as the
economic conditions in France became worse. The king
was nearly an absolute monarch. , His will was law and
the earlier representative institutions, which in England
had developed into the splendid system of parliamentary
government, had in France fallen into decay.

In the other countries of Europe — the German States,
Austria, Italy, and Spain — the condition of the people
was quite as bad, probably in some places even worse
than it was in France. But it was in France that the
revolt broke forth, and it was France which led Europe
in a movement for a better and more democratic order.
Frenchmen had fought in the armies of America; they
had experienced the benefits of a freer society, and it is
significant that in the same year (1789) that saw the
founding of the American state the Revolution in France
began. It started in a sincere and conservative attempt-
to remedy the evils under which France was suffering,
but the accumulation of injustice and misery was too
great to be settled by slow and hesitating measures. The
masses, ignorant, and bitter with their wrongs, broke
from the control of statesman and reformer, threw them-
selves upon the established state and church, both equally
detestable to them, and tore them to pieces. Both king
and queen died by beheading. The nobility were either
murdered or expelled. The revolutionary government, if
such it could be called, fell into the hands of wicked and
terrible leaders, who maintained themselves by murder
and terrorism.

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 251

Effects of the Revolution. — These are the outward
and terrible expressions of the Revolution which were
seized upon by European statesmen and which have been
most dwelt upon by historical writers. But, apart from
the bloody acts of the years from 1793 to 1795, the Revo-
lution modernized France and brought incalculable gains
to the French people. By the seizure of the great estates
and their division among the peasantry, the agricultural
products of the country were doubled in a single year,
and that terrible condition of semi-starvation which had
prevailed for centm-ies was ended.

The other monarchies of Europe regarded the events in
France with horror and alarm. Monarchs felt their own
thrones threatened, and a coalition of European mon-
archies was formed to destroy the republic and to restore
the French monarchy and old regime. France found her-
self invaded by armies upon every frontier. It was then
that the remarkable effects produced by the Revolution
upon the people of France appeared.

With a passionate enthusiasm which was irresistible,
the people responded to the call for war; great armies
were enlisted, which by an almost uninterrupted series of
victories threw back the forces of the allies. Men rose
from obscurity to the command of armies, and there was
developed that famous group of commanders, the mar-
shals of France. Out of this terrible period of warfare
there arose, too, another, who was perhaps, if we except
the Macedonian king, Alexander, the greatest man ever
permitted to lead armies and to rule men — Bonaparte,
later the emperor, Napoleon the First.

The Jfew Repuhlic under Jfapoleon the First. —
From 1795, when Bonaparte was given command of the
invasion of Italy, until 1815, when he was finally defeated

252 THE PHILIPPINES.

at Waterloo in Belgium, Europe experienced almost con-
tinuous war. The genius of Napoleon reduced to the
position of vassal states Italy, Switzerland, Holland, Bel-
gium, Germany, and Austria. In all these countries the
ancient thrones were humbled, feudalism was swept away,
and the power of a corrupt church and aristocracy was
broken. In spite of the humiliation of national pride, these
great benefits to Europe of Napoleon's conquests can not
be overestimated. Wherever Napoleon's power extended
there followed the results of the Revolution — a better system
of law, the introduction of the liberal " Code Napoleon,"
the liberation of the people from the crushing toils of
medisevalism, and the founding of a better society. These
are the debts which Europe owes to the French Revolution.

The Decline of Spain. — LacJc of Progress- — In this
advance and progress Spain did not share. The empire
of Napoleon was never established in the Peninsula. In
1811 the Spaniards, with the assistance of the English
under the great general, Wellington, repulsed the armies
of the French. This victory, so gratifying to national
pride, was perhaps a real loss to Spain, for the reforms
which prevailed in other parts of Europe were never car-
ried out in Spain, and she remains even yet unliberated
from aristocratic and clerical power.

A hberal constitutional government was, however, set
up in Spain in 1812 by the Cortes; but in 1814 King
Ferdinand, aided by the Spanish aristocracy and clergy,
was able to overthrow this representative government
and with tyrannical power to cast reforms aside. Fifty
thousand people were imprisoned for their liberal opin-
ions, the Inquisition was restored, the Cortes abolished,
and its acts nullified. The effect of these acts upon the
Philippines will be noticed presently.

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 253

Separation of the Philippines from Mexico. — The
events of these years served to separate the Phihppines
from their long dependency on Mexico. In 1813 the
Cortes decreed the suppression of the subsidized Acapulco
galleon. The Mexican trade had long been waning and
voyages had become less profitable. The last of the gal-
leons left Manila in 1811 and returned from Acapulco in
1815, never again to attempt this classical voyage.

The cessation of these voyages only briefly preceded the
complete separation from America. From the first period
of settlement, the Philippines had in many respects been
a sub-dependency of New Spain. Mexico had until late
afforded the only means of communication with the mother-
country, the only land of foreign trade. Mexican officials
frequently administered the government of the Islands,
and Mexican Indians formed the larger part of the small
standing array of the Philippines, including the "Regi-
ment of the King." As we have seen, a large subsidy,
the situado, was annually drawn from the Mexican
treasury to support the deficient revenues of the Philip-
pines.

JRebellion of the South American Countries. — But
the grievances of the Spanish American colonists were
very great and very real. The revolution which had suc-
cessively stirred North America and Europe now passed
back again to the Spanish countries of the New World,
and between 1810 and 1825 they fought themselves free
of Spain. The last of the colonies from which the Span-
iards were forced to retire was Peru. Mexico achieved
her separation in 1820. Spain lost every possession upon
the mainland of both Americas, and the only vestiges of
her once vast American empire were the rich islands of
the Greater Antilles — Cuba and Porto Rico.

254 THE PHILIPPINES.

Limited Trade with the Philippines. — The Philip-
pines were now forced to "communicate by ship directly
with Spain. The route for the next fifty years lay by
sailing-vessels around the Cape of Good Hope. It occu-
pied from four to six months, but this route had now be-
come practically a neutral passage, its winds and currents
were well understood, and it was annually followed by
great numbers of vessels of Europe, England, and the
United States.

Trade was still limited to the ships of the Royal Philip-
pine Company, and this shipping monopoly lasted until
1835, when a new era in the commercial and industrial
life of the Philippines opened. An Enghsh commercial
house was established in Manila as early as 1809.

Volcanic Eruptions. — The terrible eruptions ^of Mount
Taal, the last of which occurred in 1754, were followed in
the next century by the destructive activity of Mount
Mayon. In 1814 an indescribable eruption of ashes and
lava occurred, and the rich hemp towns around the base
of this mountain were destroyed. Father Francisco Ara-
goneses, cura of Cagsaua, an eye-witness,, states that
twelve thousand people perished; in the church of Budiao
alone two hundred lay dead.'

Rebellions in the Philippines. — The Liberal Spanish
Cortes. — Two revolts in the Philippines that occurred at
this period are of much importance and show the effect
in the Philippines of the political changes in Spain. In
1810 the hberal Spanish Cortes had declared that "the
kingdoms and provinces of America and Asia are, and
ought to have been always, reputed an integral part of
the Spanish monarchy, and for that same, their natives

' Jagor: Viajes por Filipinos, p. 81. Translated from the Ger-
man. Madrid, 1895.

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 255

and free inhabi-tants are equal in rights and privileges to
those of the Peninsula."

This important declaration, which if carried out would
have completely revolutionized Spain's colonial policy,
was published in the Philippines, and with that remark-
able and interesting facility by which such news is spread,
even among the least educated classes of Filipinos, this
proclamation had been widely disseminated and discussed
throughout the Islands. It was welcomed by the Filipino
with great satisfaction, because he believed it exempted
him from the enforced labor of the -polos and servicios.
These were the unremunerated tasks required of Filipinos
for the construction of public works, bridges, roads,
churches, and convents.

Effect of the Repeal of the Declaration of the
Cortes. — King Ferdinand VII. in May, 1814, on his
return to power, as we have seen, published the famous
decree abolishing constitutional government in Spain and
annulling all the acts of the Cortes, including those which
aimed to liberalize the government of the colonies. These
decrees, when published in the Philippines, appeared to
the Filipinos to return them to slavery, and in many
places their disaffection turned to rebellion. In Ilocos
twelve hundred men banded together, sacked convents
and churches, and destroyed the books and documents of
the municipal archives. Their fury seems to have been
particularly directed against the petty tyrants of their
own race, the caciques or principales.

The result of Spanish civilization in the Philippines had
been to educate, and, to a certain degree, enrich a small
class of Filipinos, usually known as principales or the
gente ilustrada. It is this class which has absorbed the
direction of mimicipal and local affairs, and which almost

256 THE PHILIPPINES.

alone of the Filipino population has shared in those
benefits and opportunities which civilized life should
bring.

The vast majority of the population have, unfortunately,
fallen or remained in a dependent and almost semi-servile
position beneath the principales. In Ilocos this subordi-
nate class, or dependientes, is known as kailian, and it was
these kailian who now fell upon their more wealthy mas-
ters, burning their houses and destroying their property,
and in some instances killing them. The assignment of
compulsory labor had been left to the principales in their
positions as gobernadorcillos and cabezas de barangay,
and these officials had unquestionably abused their power
and had drawn d'own upon themselves the vengeance of
the kailian.'

This revolt, it will be noticed, was primarily directed
neither against friars nor Spanish authorities, but against
the unfortunate social order which the rule of Spain main-
tained.

A Revolt Lead by Spaniards. — A plot, with far
more serious motives, took place in 1823. The official
positions in the regiments and provinces had previously
been held almost entirely by Spaniards born in America
or the Philippines. The government now attempted to
fill these positions with Spaniards from Manila. The offi-
cials, deprived of their positions, incited the native troops
which they had commanded, into a revolt, which began
in the walled city in Manila. About eight hundred sol-
diers followed them, and they gained possession of the
Cuartel of the King, of the Royal Palace, and of the Ca-
bildo, but they failed to seize the fortress of Santiago.

' See Estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1S47, by D. Sinibaldo de Mas.

PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 257

It was not properly a revolt of Filipinos, as the people
were not involved and did not rise, but it had its influence
in inciting later insurrection.

Insurrection on Bohol. — Since the insurrection on
Bohol in 1744, when the natives had killed the Jesuit
missionaries, a large part of the island had been practi-
cally independent under the leader Dog6hoy. After the
expulsion of the Jesuits, Recollects were placed in special
charge of those towns along the seacoast, which had re-
mained loyal to Spain. An effort was made to secure the
submission of the rebels by the proclamation of a pardon,
but the power of the revolt grew rather than declined,
until in 1827 it was determined to reduce the rebellion
by force. An expedition of thirty-two hundred men was
formed in Cebu, and in April, 1828, the campaign took
place, which resulted in the defeat of the rebels and their
settlement in the Christian towns.

The New Provinces of Benguet and Abra. — It is proper
to notice also the slow advances of Spanish authority,
which began to be made about this time among the heathen
tribes of northern Luzon. These fierce and powerful tribes
occupy the entire range of the Cordillera Central. Mis-
sionary effort in the latter half of the eighteenth century
had succeeded in partly Christianizing the tribes along the
river Magat in Neuva Vizcaya, but the fierce, head-hunting
hillmen remained unsubdued and imchristianized.

Between 1823 and 1829 the mission of Pidigan-, tmder an
Augustinian friar. Christianized some thousands of the
Tinguianes of the river Abra. In 1829 an expedition of
about sixty soldiers, under Don Guillermo Galvey, pene-
trated into the cool, elevated plateau of Benguet. The
diary of the leader recounts the difficult march up the
river Cagaling from Aringay and their delight upon emerg-

258 THE PHILIPPINES.

ing from the jungle and cogon upon the grassy, pine-
timbered slopes of the plateau.

They saw little cultivated valleys and small culsters of
houses and splendid herds of cattle, carabaos, and horses,
which to this day have continued to enrich the people of
these mountains. At times they were surrounded by the
yelling bands of Igorrotes, and several times they had to
repulse attacks, but they nevertheless succeeded in reach-
ing the beautiful circular depression now known as the
valley of La Trinidad.

The Spaniards saw with enthusiasm the carefully sepa-
rated and walled fields, growing camotes, taro, and sugar-
cane. The village of about five hundred houses was
partly burned by the Spaniards, as the Igorrotes con-
tinued hostile. The expedition returned to the coast,
having suffered only a few wounds. The commandancia
of Benguet was not created until 1846, in which year also
Abra was organized as a province.

CHAPTER XII.

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION.
1837-1897.

Progress during the Last Half-Century of Spanish Rule.—

We have now come to the last half-century and to the
last phase of Spanish rule. In many respects this period
was one of economic and social progress, and contained
more of promise than any other in the history of the
Islands. During this last half-century the Spanish rulers
had numerous plans for the development and better ad-
ministration of the Philippines, and, in spite of a some-
what wavering policy and the continual sore of official
peculation, this was a period of wonderful advancement.
Revolution and separation from Spain came at last, as
revolutions usually do, not because there was no effort
nof movement for reform, but because progress was so
discouragingly slow and so irritatingly blocked by estab-
lished interests that desired no change.

Effect of Opening the Port of Manila to Foreign Trade. — ■
Increase in oigriculture. — The opening of the port of
Manila to foreign trade, in 1837, was followed by a period
of rising industry and prosperity. Up to this time the
archipelago had not been a producing and exporting coun-
try, but the freeing of trade led to the raising of great
harvests for foreign export, which have made world-wide
the fame of certain Philippine productions. Chief among
these are of course Manila hemp and tobacco. These
were followed by sugar and coffee culture, the latter plant
enriching the province of Batangas, while the planting of

259

260 THE PHILIPPINES.

new cocoanut groves yearly made of greater importance
the yield of that excellent product, copra. These rich
merchandises had entered very little into commerce durmg;
the early decades of the century.

Increase in Exports. — In 1810 the entire imports of
the Philippines amounted in value to 5,329,000 dollars,
but more than half of this consisted of silver sent from
Mexico. From Europe and the United States trade
amounted to only 175,000 dollars. The exports in the
same year amounted to 4,795,000 dollars, but a million
and a half of this was Mexican silver exported on to
China, and the whole amount of exports to Europe and
the United States was only 250,000 dollars.

In 1831 the exportation of hemp amounted to only 346
tons. But the effect upon production of opening Manila
to foreign trade is, seen in the export six years later of
2,585 tons. By 1858 the exportation of hemp had risen
to 412,000 piculs, or 27,500 tons. Of this amoimt, nearly
two thirds, or 298,000 piculs, went to the United States.
At this time the North Atlantic seaboard of America
was the center of a most active ship-building and ship-
carrying trade. The American flag was conspicuous among
the vessels that frequented these Eastern ports, and " Ma-
nila hemp" was largely sought after by American sea-
men to supply the shipyards at home. Of sugar, the
export in 1858 amounted to 557,000 piculs, of which more
than half went to Great Britain.

After 1814 general permission had been given to for-
eigners to establish trading-houses in Manila, and by 1858
there were fifteen such establishments, of which seven
were English and three American.^

' Bowring: A Visit to the Philippine Islands, p. 387.

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 1837-1897. 261

Other Ports Opened to Foreign Commerce. — In 1855
three other ports were opened to foreign commerce —
^ Sual in Pangasinan on the Gulf of Lingayan, Iloilo, and
Zamboanga. In 1863, Cebu likewise was made an open
port. The exports of Sual consisted only of rice, and in
spite of its exceptional harbor this port never flourished,
and is to-day no more than an unfrequented village.

Iloilo exported leaf tobacco, sugar, sapan or dyewood (an
industry long ago ruined), hemp, and hides. Zamboanga
through the Chinese had a small trade with Jolo and the
Moro Islands, and exported the produce of these seas —
sea-slug (tripang), shark fins, mother-of-pearl, tortoise
shell, etc. For some years the customs laws in these
ports were trying and vexatious, and prevented full ad-
vantage being taken of the privileges of export; but in
1869 this service was, by royal decree, greatly liberalized
and improved. Since that date the Philippines have
steadily continued to grow in importance in the com-
mercial world.

The Form of Government under the Spanish. — General
Improvertvents. — This is perhaps a convenient place to
examine for the last time the political system which the
Spaniards maintained in the country. In 1850 there were
thirty-four provinces and two politico-military command-
ancias. In these provinces the Spanish administration
was still vested solely in the alcalde mayor, who until
after 1886 was both governor or executive officer and
the judge or court for the trial of provincial cases and
crimes.

Many of the old abuses which had characterized the
government of the alcaldes had been at least partially
remedied. After 1844 they had no longer the much-
abused monopoly privilege of trade, nor had they as free

262. THE PHILIPPINES.

a hand in controlling the labor of the uihabitants; but
opportunities for illegal enrichment existed in the ad-
ministration of the treasury and tax system, and these
opportunities were not slighted. Up to the very end
of Spanish rule the officials, high and low, are accused of
stealing public money.

The Pueblo. — The unit of administration was the
pueblo, ■ or township, which ordinarily embraced many
square miles of country and contained numerous villages,
or "barrios." The center of the town was naturally the
site where for centuries had stood the great church and
the convent of the missionary friars. These locations had
always been admirably chosen, and about them grew up
the market and trading-shops of Chinese and the fine and
durable homes of the more prosperous Filipinos and mes-
tizos.

About 1860 the government began to concern itself
with the construction of public buildings and improve-
ments, and the result is seen in many pueblos in the
finely laid-out plazas and well-built municipal edifices
grouped about the square — the "tribunal," or town
house, the jail, and the small but significant schoolhouses.
The government of the town was vested in a "gobema-
dorcillo " 'and a council, each of the " eonsejales" usually
representing a hamlet or barrio.

But the Spanish friar, who in nearly every pueblo was
the parish curate, continued to be the paternal guardian
and administrator of the pueblo. In general, no matter
was too minute for his dictation. Neither gobernador-
cillo nor councillors dared act in opposition to his wishes,
and the alcalde of the province was careful to keep on
friendly terms and leave town affairs largely to his dicta-
tion. The friar was the local inspector of public instruc-

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 1837-1897. 263

tion and ever vigilant to detect and destroy radical ideas.
To the humble Filipino, the friar was the visible and
only representative of Spanish authority.

The Revolt of 1841. — Bcpression of the People, by
the Friars. — Unquestionably in the past, the work of
the friars had been of very great value ; but men as well
as institutions may lose their usefulness, as conditions
change, and the time was now approaching when the
autocratic and paternal regime of the friars no longer
satisfied the Filipinos. Their zeal was no longer disinter-
ested, and their work had become materialized by the
possession of the vast estates upon which their spiritual
charges lived and labored as tenants or dependents. The
policy of the religious orders had, in fact, become one of
repression, and as the aspirations of the Filipinos in-
creased, the friars, filled with doubt and fear, tried to
draw still tighter the bonds of their own authority, and
viewed with growing distrust the rising ambition of the
people.

ApoUnario de la Cruz. — The unfortunate revolution
of 1841 shows the wayward and misdirected enthusiasm
of the Filipino; and the unwisdom of the friars. Apoli-
nario de la Cruz, a young Filipino, a native of Lukban,
Tayabas, came up to Manila filled with the ambition to
lead a monastic life, and engaged in theological studies.
By his attendance upon lectures and sermons and by imi-
tation of the friar preachers of Manila, Apolinario became,
himself, quite an orator, and, as subsequent events showed,
was able to arouse great numbers of his own people by
his appeals.

It was his ambition to enter one of the regular mon-
astic orders, but this religious privilege was never granted
to Filipinos, and he was refused. He then entered a

264 THE PHILIPPINES.

brotherhood known as the Cofradia, or Brotherhood of
San Juan de Dios, composed entirely of Fihpinos. After
some years in this brotherhood, he returned in 1840 to
Tayabas and founded the Cofradia de San Jose, his aim
being to form a special cult in honor of Saint Joseph and
the Virgin. For this he requested authorization from
Manila. It was here that the lack of foresight of the
friars appeared.

The Opposition of the Friars. — Instead of sympa-
thizing with these religious aspirations, in which, up to
this point, there seems to have been nothing heretical,
they viewed the rise of a Filipino religious leader with
alarm. Their policy never permitted to the Filipino any
position that was not wholly subordinate. They believed
that the permanence of Spanish power in these islands lay
in suppressing any latent ability for leadership in the Fili-
pino himself. Their influence, consequently, was thrown
against Apolinario, and the granting of the authority for
his work. They secured not only a condemnation of his
plan, but an order for the arrest and imprisonment of all
who should attend upon his preaching.

Apolinario Forced to Rebel. — Apolinario thereupon
took refuge in independent action. His movement had
already become a strong one, and his followers numbered
several thousand people of Laguna, Tayabas, and Batangas.
The governor of Tayabas province, Don Joaquin Ortega,
organized an expedition to destroy the schism. Accom-
panied by two Franciscan friars, he attacked Apolinario
in the month of October, 1840, and was defeated and
killed. One account says that Apolinario was assisted by
a band of Negritos, whose bowmanship was destructive.
There are still a very few of these little blacks in the
woods in the vicinity of Lukban.

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 18S7-1807. 265

Apolinario was now in the position of an open rebel,
and he fortified himself in the vicinity of Alitao, where
he built a fort and chapel.

His religious movement became distinctly independent
and heretical. A church was formed, of which he was
first elected archbishop and then supreme pontiff. He
was also charged with having assumed the title of " King
of the Tagdlog."

Finally a force under the new alcalde, Vital, and General
Huet early in November attacked Apolinario's stronghold
and after a fierce struggle defeated the revolutionists.
About a thousand Filipinos perished in the final battle.
Apolinario was captm-ed and executed. He was then
twenty-seven years of age.

Organization of Municipal Governments. — In 1844
an able and liberal governor. General Claveria, arrived, and
remained until the end of the year 1849. A better or-
ganization of the provincial governments, which we have
seen, followed Claveria's entrance into office, and in Octo-
ber, 1847, came the important decree, organizing the mu-
nicipalities in the form which we have already described,
and which remained without substantial modification to
the end of Spanish rule, and which has to a considerable
extent been followed in the Municipal Code framed by the
American government.

Subjection of the Igorrote Tribes. — With Claveria be-
gan a decisive policy of conquest among the Igorrote
tribes of northern Luzon, and by the end of Spanish rule
these mountains were dotted with cuartels and missions
for the control of these unruly tribes. The province
of Nueva Vizcaya has been particularly subject to the
raids of these head-hunting peoples. Year after year the
Christian towns of the plains had yielded a distressing

266 THE PHILIPPINES.

sacrifice of life to satisfy the savage ceremonials of the
Igorrotes/

In 1847, Claveria nominated as governor of Nueva
Vizcaya, Don Mariano Ozcariz, whose severe and telling
conquests for the first time checked these Igorrote out-
rages and made possible the development of the great
valleys of northern Luzon.

Spanish Settlements on Mindanao. — Zamboanga. —
With Claveria's governorship we enter also upon the last
phase of Mol-o piracy. In spite of innumerable expedi-
tions, Spain's occupation of South Mindanao and the Sulu
archipelago was limited to the presidio of Zamboanga. She
had occupied this strategic point continuously since the
reestablishment of Spanish power in 1763. The great stone
fort, which still stands, had proved impregnable to Moro
attack, and had long been tmmolested.

Distributed for a distance of some miles over the rich
lands at this end of the Zamboanga peninsula was a Chris-
tian population, which had grown up largely from the de-
scendants of rescued captives of the Moros. Coming
originally from all parts of the Bisayas, Calamianes, and
Luzon, this mixed population has grown to have a some-
what different character from that of any other part of
Ihe Islands. A corrupt Spanish dialect, known as the
"Chabucano," has become the common speech, the only
instance in the Philippines where the native dialect has
been supplanted. This population, loyal and devotedly
Catholic, never failed to sustain the defense of this iso-

' The reports of the Dominican missionaries of Nueva Vizcaya and
Isabela show the extent and persistence of these raids. (See the files
of the missionary pubUcation, El Correo Sino-Annamita, and also the
work by Padre Buenaventura Campa, Los Maybyaos y la Raza Ifugao,
Madrid, 1895.

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 18S7-1S97. 267

lated Spanish outpost, and contributed brave volunteers
to every expedition against the Moro islands.

Activity of Other Jfdtions. — But Spain's maintenance
of Zamboanga was insufficient to sustain her claims of
sovereignty over the Sulu and Tawi-Tawi groups. Both
the Dutch and English planned various moves for their
occupation and acquisition, and in 1844 a French fleet
entered the archipelago and concluded a treaty with the
sultan of Sulu for the cession of the island of Basilan for
the sum of one million dollars. Writings of the French
minister and historian, M. Guizot, show that France hoped,
by the acquisition of this island, to obtain a needed naval
base in the East and found a great commercial port within
the sphere of Chinese trade.^

Conquest of the Gulf of Davao. — But this step
roused the Spaniards to activity and the occupation of
the island. A naval vessel subdued* the towns along
the north coast, and then proceeding to the mouth of the
Rio Grande, secured from the sultan of Maguindanao the
cession of the great Gulf of Davao. Spain took no imme-
diate steps to occupy this gulf, but in 1847 a Spaniard,
Don Jose Oyanguran, proposed to the governor, Claveria,
to conquer the region at his own expense, if he could be
furnished with artillery and munitions and granted a ten
years' government of Davao, with the exclusive privilege
of trade.

His offer was accepted by the governor and the Audi-
encia, and Oyanguran organized a company to secure
funds for the undertaking. In two years' time he had
subdued the coast regions of this gulf, expelled the pirates
who harbored there, and founded the settlement of Nueva

' Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. III., p. 99.

268 THE PHILIPPINES.

Vergara. He seems to have been making progress toward
the conquest and commercial exploitation of this region,
when jealous attacks in Manila induced Governor Urbis-
tondo to cancel his privilege and to relieve him by an
officer of the government.

In subsequent years the Jesuits had a few mission
stations here and made a few converts among the Bago-
bos; but the region is still an unsubdued and unutilized
country, whose inhabitants are mainly pagan tribes, and
whose rich agricultural possibilities lie undeveloped and
unclaimed.

The Samal Pirates. — The Sulu. — The piratical in-
habitants of the Sulu archipelago are made of two dis-
tinct Malayan peoples — the Sulu (or Sulug), and the
Samal, who are known throughout Malaysia as the " Bajau"
or "Orang laut" (Men of the Sea). The former appear to
be the older inhabitants. They occupy the rich and popu-
lous island of Jolo and some islands of the Siassi group,
immediately south.

The Samal. — The Samal, or Bajau, are stated to
have come originally from Johore. Many of them live
almost exclusively in their boats, passing their lives from
birth to death upon the sea. They are found throughout
most parts of Malaysia, the position of their little fleets
changing with the shifting of the monsoons. In the Sulu
archipelago and a few points in South Mindanao, many of
these Samal have shifted their homes from their boats to
the shore. Their villages are built on piles over the sea,
and on many of the low coral reefs south of Siassi and
east of Tawi-Tawi theje are great towns or settlements
which have apparently been in existence a long while.

Fifty years ago the Samal were very numerous in the
many islands between Jolo and Basilan, and this group is

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 18S7-1S97. 2G9

still known as the Islas Samales. Like the Sulu and other
Malays, the Samal are Mohammedans, and scarcely less
persistent pirates than their fellow-Malays. With the de-
cline of piratical power among the Sulu of Jolo, the focus
of piracy shifted to these settlements of the Samal, and in
the time of Claveria the worst centers were the islands of
Balanguingui and Tonquil, lying just north of the island
of Jolo. From here pirate and slaving raids upon the
Bisayan Islands continued to be made, and nearly every
year towns were sacked and burned and several hundred
unfortunate captives carried away. The captives were
destined for slavery, and regular marts existed for this
traffic at Jolo and on the Bay of Sandakan in Borneo.

Arrival of Steam, Warships. — In 1848 the Philip-
pines secured the first steam war vessels. These were the
"Magellanes," the "Elcano," and the "Reina de Castilla."
They were destined to revolutionize Moro relations.

The Destruction of the Samal Forts. — Hitherto it
had been possible for the great Moro war praos, manned
by many oarsmen, to drop their masts on the approach
of an armed sailing-vessel, and, turning toward the "eye
of the wind," where no sailing-ship could pursue, row
calmly away from danger. Steam alone was effective in
combating these sea-wolves. Claveria took these newly
arrived ships, and with a strong force of infantry, which
was increased by Zamboangueno volunteers, he entered
the Samal group in February, 1848, and landed on the
island of Balanguingui.

There were four fortresses situated in the mangrove
marshes of the island. These, in spite of a desperate
resistance, were carried by the infantry and Zamboangue-
fios and the pirates scattered. The conduct of the cam-
paign appears to have been admirable and the fighting

270 THE PHILIPPINES.

heroic. The Moros were completely overwhelmed; 450
dead were burned or interred; 124 pieces of artillery —
for the most part, the small brass cannon called "lan-
tacas" — were captured, and 150 Moro boats were de-
stroyed. The Spaniards cut down the cocoanut groves,
and' with spoil that included such rich pirate loot as silks,
silver vases, ornaments, and weapons of war, and with
over two hundred prisoners and three hundred rescued
captives, returned to Zamboanga. This was the most sig-
nal victory ever won by Europeans in conflict with Malay
piracy. The effectiveness of this campaign is shown by
the fact that while in the preceding year 450 Filipinos had
suffered capture at the hands of Moro pirates, in 1848 and
the succeeding year there was scarcely a depredation.
But in 1850 a pirate squadron from Tonquil, an island
adjacent to Balanguingui, fell upon Samar and Camaguin.
Fortunately, Governor Urbistondo, who had succeeded
Claveria, vigorously continued the policy of his predeces-
sor, and an expedition was promptly dispatched which
destroyed the settlements and strongholds on Tonquil.

Destruction of the Moro Forts at Jolo. — A year
later war broke out again with Jolo, and after a varied
interchange of negotiations and hostilities, the Spaniards
stormed and took the town in February, 1851. The ques-
tion of permanent occupation of this important site was
debated by a council of war, but their forces appearing
unequal to the task, the forts of the Moros were destroyed,
and the expedition returned. Jolo is described at this
time as a very strongly guarded situation. Five forts and
a double line of trenches faced the shore. The Moro town
is said to have contained about seven thousand souls,
and there was a barrio of Chinese traders, who numbered
about five hundred.

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 1S37-1S97. 271

Treaty with the Sultan of Jolo. — A. few months
later the governor of Zamboanga concluded a treaty with
the sultan of Jolo by which the archipelago was to be con-
sidered an incorporated part of the Spanish possessions.
The sultan bound himself to make no further treaties
with or cessions to foreign powers, to suppress piracy,
and to fly the Spanish flag. The Mores were guaranteed
the practice of their religion, the succession of the sultan
and his descendants in the established order, boats of
Jolo were to enjoy the same trading privileges in Spanish
ports as other Filipino vessels, and the sultan retained the
right to all customs duties on foreign trading-vessels.
Finally, " in compensation for the damages of war, " the
sultan was to be paid an annual subsidy of 1,500 pesos
and 600 pesos each to three datos and 360 pesos to a
sherif . '

The End of Malay Piracy. — In these very years that
Malay piracy was receiving such severe blows from the
recuperating power and activity of the Spanish govern-
ment on the north, it was crushed also from the south by
the merciless warfare of a great Englishman, the Raja
Charles Brooke of Sarawak. The sources of pirate depre-
dation were Maguindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and the
north and west coasts of the great island of Borneo. We
have seen how these fleets, century after century, swept
northward and wasted with fire and murder the fair islands
of the Philippines.

But this archipelago was not alone in suffering these
ravages. The peaceful trading inhabitants of the great
island groups to the south were persistently visited and
despoiled. Moreover, as the Chinese trade by the Cape of

' Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. III., p. 209. The
document is given in Appendix 4 of the same volume.

272 THE PHILIPPINES.

Good Hope route became established in the first half of
the nineteenth century, these pirates became a great
menace to European shipping. They swarmed the China
Sea, and luckless indeed was the ship carried too far east-
ward on its course. Every American schoolboy is familiar
with the stories of fierce hand-to-hand struggles with
Malay pirates, which have come down from those years
when the American flag was seen ever3rwhere in the ports
of the Far East.

About 1839 a young English officer,' who had been in
the Indian service, Charles Brooke, having armed and
equipped a yacht of about 140 tons, set sail for the coast
of Borneo, with the avowed intent of destroying Malay
piracy and founding an independent state. In aU the
romantic stories of the East there is no career of greater
during than that of this man. In 1841, having engaged
in several bloody exploits, Brooke forced from the sultan
of Borneo the cession of Sarawak, with the government
vested in himself as an independent raja.

Brooke now devoted himself with merciless severity to
the destruction of the pirates in the deep bays and swampy
rivers, whence they had so long made their excursions.
Later he was assisted by the presence of the English man-
of-war " Dido," and in 1847 the sultan of Brunei ceded to
Great Britain the island of Labuan. In 1849, Brooke
visited Zamboanga in the English man-of-war "Moeander,'
and concluded a treaty with the sultan of Sulu, which
greatly alarmed the Spaniards.

Brooke's private correspondence shows that he was am-
bitious and hopeful of acquiring for England parts of the
Dutch possessions in the south and the Spanish Philip-

See Rajah Brooke, by Sir Spencer St. John, London, 1899.

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 1837-1897. 273

pines in the north; but his plans were never followed up
by England, although in 1887 North Borneo was ceded to
an English company, and all the northern and eastern
portions of this great island are now under English pro-
tection.^

Liberal Ideas among the Filipinos. — The release from
Moro piracy, the opening of foreign commerce, and the
development of agricultural production were rapidly bring-
ing about a great change in the aspirations of the Filipino
people themselves. Nearly up to the middle of the nine-
teenth century the Filipinos had felt the full effect of
isolation from the life and thought of the modern world.
But the revolutionary changes .in Europe and the struggles
for constitutional government in Spain had their influ-
ence, even in these far-away Spanish possessions. Span-
iards of liberal ideas, some of them in official positions,
found their way to the Islands, and an agitation began,
originating among Spaniards themselves, against the pater-
nal powers of the friars.

Influence of the Press. — The growth of periodic liter-
ature accelerated this liberalizing movement. The press,
though suffering a severe censorship, has played a large
part in shaping recent thought in these islands and in
communicating to the Filipino people those ideas and
purposes which ever inspire and elevate men.^ The first
newspaper to make its appearance in the Philippines was
in 1822 — "El Philantropo "; but journalism assumed no

' Keppel: Expedition to Borneo of H. M. S. Dido for the Suppres-
sion of Piracy, with extracts from the Journal of James Brooke, Esq.
2 vols. London, 1846. Keppel: A Visit to the Indian Archipelago in
H. M. S. M (Bandar. 2 vols. London, 1853.

^ Spain established a permanent commission of censorship in 1856.
It was composed of eight persons, one half nominated by the gov-
ernor and one half by the archbishop.

274 THE PHILIPPINES.

real importance until the forties, when there were founded
"Semanario Filipino" (1843), and almost immediately
after several others — "El Amigo de Pais" (1845), "La
Estrella" (1846), and "La Esperanza" (1847), the first
daily. These were followed by "Diario de Manila"
(1848); in 1858 "El Comercio" appeared, the oldest of
the papers still in existence/

Papers conducted by Filipinos and in the Filipino
tongues are of more recent origin, but these early Spanish
periodicals had a real effect upon the Filipinos themselves,
training up a class familiar with the conduct of journal-
ism and preparing a way for the very influential work of
the Filipino press in recent years.

Establishment of an Educational System. — Return of
the Jesuits. — But more important than all other influ-
ences was the opening of education to Filipinos. In 1852
a royal decree authorized the Jesuits to return to the
Philippines. The conditions under which they came back
were that they should devote themselves solely to missions
in the unoccupied fields of Mindanao, and to the higher
education of the Filipinos.

The Public Schools.— In 1860, O'Donnell, the Span-
ish minister of war and colonies (Ultramar), founded the
system of public primary instruction. A primary school
for boys and one for girls was to be established in each
pueblo of the Islands. In these schools, instruction was
to be given in the Spanish language. A superior commis-
sion of education was formed, which consisted of the gov-
ernor, the archbishop, and seven other members added by
the governor himself.

The system was not secular, for it primarily was de-

' El Periodismo Filipino, por W. E. Retana. Madrid, 1895.

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 1837-1897.

275

voted to the teaching of reUgious doctrine. The Spanish
friar, the pueblo curate, was the local inspector of schools
and practically directed their conduct. It was not wholly
a free system, because tuition was required of all but the
poorest children; nor was it an adequate system, because,
even when most complete, it reached only a small pro-
portion of the children of a parish, and these very largely

Cathedral, Manila.

were of the well-to-do families. And yet this system, for
what it accomplished, is deserving of great credit.

Besides the church, the convent, and the tribunal,
nearly every town in the Phihppines, toward the close of
Spanish rule, had also, in the public plaza, its public
school buildings for boys and for girls. In these towns a
number of Filipinos were taught to converse in the Span-
ish language and at least the rudiments of Spanish edu-

276 THE PHILIPPINES.

cation. But this system did not give opportiuiity for
education to the little child of the humble fisherman and
the husbandman.

The Manila Jformal School. — To prepare Filipino
teachers to do this work of primary instruction, a decree of
1863 established the Manila Normal School. In charge of
the Jesuits, this school was inaugurated in January, 1865.
And about the same date the government decreed the
foundation of the Jesuit "Ateneo Municipal" for higher
instruction in the classics and sciences that should conduct
the student to the degree of bachelor of arts. The influ-
ence of these institutions upon the development of the
Filipino has been remarkable. In one or the other of
them have been trained nearly all of those young men
who in recent years have stirred the Filipino people to
wide ambitions and demands. At the same time the ex-
cellent Jesuit observatory, which has done such important
work in meteorology, was established in charge of Padre
Faura.

Increase in Spanish Population. — The opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869 brought immense changes to the Is-
lands. Previous to this date Spanish residents had been
few. Almost the only class deeply interested in the
Islands and permanently established here had been the
friars. But with communication by steamer in thirty
days from Barcelona to Manila, a new interest was felt
by Spaniards in the Philippines, though unfortunately
this interest was greatest among the politicians. Some of
the projects planned and decreed can only be regarded
as visionary and beyond the point of serviceability, and
others, more unfortunately still, had for their pm-pose the
creation of offices and emoluments for Peninsula politi-
cians; but they all contributed to bring to an end the

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 18S7-1897. 277

paternal government under which there was no prospect
of further enlightenment or progress for the Filipino.

Increase in the Number of Wealthy, Educated Filipinos. —
The Filipino had now become embarked upon a new cur-
rent of intellectual experience — a course of enlighten-
ment which has been so full of unexpected development,
and which has already carried him so far from his ancestor
of one hundred years ago, that we can not say what ad-
vance another generation or two may bring. Throughout
all the towns of the Islands a class was rapidly growing
up to which the new industries had brought wealth. Their
means enabled them to build spacious and splendid homes
of the fine, hard woods of the Philippines, and to surround
themselves with such luxuries as the life of the Islands
permitted. This class was rapidly gaining education. It
acquired a knowledge of the Spanish language, and easily
assumed that graceful courtesy which distinguishes the
Spaniard.

The only misfortuncj as regards this class, was that it
was -very small. It could embrace but a few families in
each populous town. Some of these had Chinese and
Spanish blood in their veins, but other notable families
were pure Filipinos.

Attitude of the Spanish and the Friars toward Filipino
Education. — The great mistake committed by the Span-
iard was that he rarely welcomed the further progress of
the native population, and the center of this opposition
to the general enlightenment of the race was the friars.
Thus those who had been the early protectors and edu-
cators, little by little, because of their extreme conserva-
tism and their fear of loosening the ties that bound the
Filipino to the church and to Spain, changed into oppo-
nents of his progress and enemies of his enlightenment;

278 THE PHILIPPINES.

but the education which the church itself had given to
the Filipino, and which had been fostered by the state
and especially in recent times by the Jesuits, had made
the Filipino passionately ambitious for more enlighten-
ment and freedom. ,

The Rule of Governor Torre. — Liberal Reforms. — In
1868, Queen Isabella II. of Spain was deposed, and a little
later a revolutionary government, the " Republic of Spain,"
was founded. It was the brief triumph of that reforming
and liberal spirit which for so many years had been strug-
gling to free Spain from the burdens of aristocracy and
ecclesiasticism.

The natural consequence was the sending of a liberal
governor to the Philippines and the publication of liberal
principles and reforms. This governor was General de
la Torre. He was a brave and experienced soldier and
a thorough democrat at heart. He dispensed with the
formality and petty pomp with which the governors of
Manila had surrounded themselves; he dismissed the
escort of halberdiers, with their mediteval uniforms and
weapons, which had surrounded the governor-generals
since 1581, and rode out in civilian's clothes and without
ostentation. His efforts were directed to encouraging
the Filipinos and to attaching them to Spain. Ip the
eyes of the Spanish law, for a brief period, Spaniard and
colonists had become equal, and La Torre tried to enforce
this principle and make no distinction of race or birth.
While Filipinos were encouraged and delighted, it is im-
possible to describe the disgust of the Spanish population
and the opposition of the friars. La Torre was attacked
and opposed, and the entire course of his governorship
was filled with trouble, in which, naturally, liberal ideas
gained wider §,nd wider currency among the Filipinos.

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 18S7-1S97. 279

Effect of the Opposition of the Friars. — The friars,
being the most influential opponents of the FiUpino,
naturally came to be regarded by the Filipinos as their
greatest enemies, and the anti-friar spirit daily spread
and intensified. A party was formed which demanded
that the friars vacate the parishes, and that their places
be filled by secular priests, in accordance with the
statutes of the Council of Trent. This party was headed
by a native priest, Dr. Jose Burgos.

A Filipino Movement for Reform. — After the fall of
the republic in Spain and the restoration of the monarchy,
the administration in the Philippines attempted to extir-
pate the rising tide of liberal thought; but these ideas had
taken root and could not be suppressed. The Filipino
party, if so we may call it, continued to plan and work
for reform. It numbered not only those of Filipino blood,
but many of Spanish descent, born in the Philippines.
There is no certain evidence that they were at this time
plotting for independence, or that their actions were trea-
sonable; but the fear and hatred felt by the Spaniards
resulted frequently in the exile and pimishment of known
advocates of reform.

The Cavite Revolt. — In 1872 there occurred an im-
portant outbreak known as the Cavite Revolt. Two
hundred native soldiers at the Cavite arsenal rose,
killed their officers, and shouted " Death to Spain!" They
had fellow-conspirators among the troops in Manila, but
owing to mistakes in their plans these failed to rise with
them and the revolt was easily suppressed.

It was immediately followed by the arrest of a large
number of Filipinos who had been conspicuous in La
Torre's time and who were advocates of reform. This
number included the three priests. Fathers Burgos, Za-

280 THE PHILIPPINES.

mora, and Gomez, besides Don Antonio Regidor, Don
Joaquin Pardo de Taverai, Don Pedro Carillo, and others.
A council of war condemned to death forty-one of the
participants in the Cavite riot, and these were shot on
the morning of the 27th of January, 1872, on the Field
of Bagumbayan. On the 6th of February a council of
war condemned to death eleven more soldiers of the
regiment of artillery, but this sentence was commuted by
the governor to life imprisonment. On the 15th of Feb-
ruary the same council of war sentenced to death upon
the garrote, the priests Burgos, Zamora, Gomez, and a
countryman, Saldua; and this sentence was executed on
the morning of the 17th.

The Spread of Secret Organizations. — Masonry. — New
ground for fear was now found in the spread of secret
organizations, which were denounced as Free Masonry.
This is a very ancient institution which, in Protestant
countries like England and America, has a very large
membership, and in these countries its aims are wholly
respectable. It has never in any way been connected
with sedition or other unworthy movements. Its services
are, in fact, largely of a religious character and it possesses
a beautiful and elaborate Christian ritual; but in Latin
coimtries Masonry has been charged mth political intrigue
and the encouragement of infidelity, and this has resulted
in clerical opposition to the order wherever foimd. The
first Masonic lodge in the Philippines was established
about 1861 and was composed entirely of Spaniards. It
was succeeded by others with Filipino membership, and
in one way or another seems to have inspired many secret
organizations.

The "Liga Filipina " and Dr. Bizal, — Large mmibers
of Filipinos were now working, if not for independence,

PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 1837-1897.

281

at least for the expulsion of the friars; and while this
feeling should have been met by a statesmanlike and
liberal pojicy of reform, the government constantly re-
sorted to measures of repression, which little by little
changed the movement for reformation into revolution.
In 1887 the "Liga Filipina" was formed by a number
of the younger Filipino patriots, chief among whom was
Dr. Jose Rizal y Mercado. Rizal, by his gifts, his noble
character, and his sad
fate, has gained a su-
preme place in the
hearts of Filipinos and
in the history of the
Islands. He was born
in 1861 at Calamba, on
Laguna de Bay, and
even as a child he was
affected with sadness
at the memory of the
events of 1872 and with
the backward and un-
happy condition of his
countrymen. He was
educated by the Jesu-
its at the Ateneo Municipal in Manila, and his family
having means, he was enabled to study in Spain, where
he took a degree in medicine, and later to travel and
study in France, England, and Germany,
i It was in this latter country that he produced his first
novel, Noli Me Tangere. He had been a contributor
to the Filipino paper published in Spain, "La Solidar-
idad," and, to further bring the conditions and needs of
his country to more public notice, he wrote this novel

Dr. Rizal.

282 THE PHILIPPINES.

dealing with Tagdlog life as represented at his old home
on Laguna de Bay and in the city of Manila. Later he
published a sequel, El Filibusterismo, in which eyen more
courageously and significantly are set forth his ideas for
reform.

His work made him many enemies, and on his return
to Manila he found himself in danger and was obliged to
leave. He returned again in 1893, and was immediately
arrested and sentenced to deportation to Dapitan, Min-
danao. Here he remained quietly in the practice of his
profession for some years.

The Katipunan. — Meanwhile the ideas which had been
agitated by the wealthy and educated Filipinos had
worked their way down to the poor and humble classes.
They were now shared by the peasant and the fisherman.
Especially in those provinces where the religious orders
owned estates and took as rental a portion of the ten-
ants' crop, there was growing hatred and hostility to the
friars. The "Liga Filipina" had been composed of cul-
tivated and moderate men, who while pressing for reform
were not inclined to radical extremes, nor to obtain their
ends by violent means.

But there now grew up and gradually spread, until it
had its branches and members in all the provinces s;ir-
rounding Manila, a secret association composed largely of
the uneducated classes, whose object was independence of
Spain, and whose members, having little to lose, were
willing to risk all. This was the society which has since
become famous under the name of "Katipunan." This
secret association was organized in Oavite about 1892.
Its president and founder was Andres Bonifacio. Its
objects were frankly to expel the friars, and, if possible, to
destroy the Spanish government.

PROGRESS A AW REVOLUTION. 18S7-1S97. 283

Rebellion of i8g6. — A general attack and slaughter of
the Spaniards was planned for the 20th of August, 1896.
The plot was discovered by the priest of Binondo, Padre
Gil, who learned of the movement through the wife of one
of the conspirators, and within a few hours the government
had seized several hundred persons who were supposed to
be implicated. The arrests included many rich and prom-
inent Filipinos, and at the end of some weeks the Spanish
prisons contained over five thousand suspects. Over one
thousand of these were almost immediately exiled to far-
distant Spanish prisons — Fernando Po, on the west
coast of Africa, and the fortress of Ceuta, on the Mediter-
ranean.

Meanwhile the Katipunan was organizing its forces for
struggle. On the 26th of August, one thousand insurgents
attacked Caloocan, and four days later a pitched battle
was fought at San Juan del Monte. In this last fight the
insurgents suffered great loss, their leader, Valenzuela,
was captured and, with three companions, shot on the
Campo de Bagumbayan. The rising continued, however,
and the provinces of Pampanga, Bulacan, and Nueva
Ecija were soon in full rebellion. The center of revolt,
however, proved to be Cavite. This province was almost
immediately cleared of Spaniards, except the long neck
of land containing the town of Cavite and protected by
the fleet. Here the insurgents received some organization
under a young man, who had been prominent in the
Katipunan — Emilio Aguinaldo.

The governor-general, Blanco, a humane man, who after-
wards for a short time commanded in Cuba, was recalled,
and General Polavieja replaced him. The Spanish army
at the beginning of the revolt had consisted of but fifteen
hundred troops, but so serious was the revolt regarded

284

THE PHILIPPINES.

that Spain, although straining every energy at the mo-
ment to end the rebelHon in Cuba, strengthened the
forces in the Philippines, until Polavieja had an army of
twenty-eight thousand Spaniards assisted by several loyal

Filipino regiments.
With this army a
fierce campaign in
C a V i t e province
was conducted,
which after fifty-
two days' hard
fighting ended in
the defeat of the
insurgents and the
scattering of their
forces.

Death of Dr.
Rizal. — For the
moment it looked
as though the re-
bellion might pass.
Then the Spanish
government of Po-
lavieja disgraced
itself by an act as
wanton and cruel
as it was inhuman
and impolitic.
Four years Dr, Rizal had spent in exile at Dapitan. He
had lived quietly and under surveillance, and it was im-
possible that he could have had any share in this rebellion
of 1898. Wearied, however, with his inactivity, he so-
licited permission to go as an army doctor to the dreadful

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PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 18S7-1S97. 285

Spanish hospitals in Cuba. This request was granted in
July, and Rizal had the misfortune to arrive in Manila at
the very moment of discovery of the rebellion in August.
Governor Blanco hastened to send him to Spain with a
most kindly letter to the minister of war, in which he
vouched for his independence of the events which were
taking place in Manila.

His enemies, however, could not see him escape. Their
persecution followed him to the Peninsula, and, upon his
arrival in Spain, Rizal was at once arrested and sent
back to Manila a prisoner. His friend Blanco had gone.
Polavieja, the friend and tool of the reactionary party, was
busy punishing by imprisormient, banishment or death
all Filipinos who could be shown to have the slightest
part or association in the movement for reform. And by
this clique Dr. Rizal was sentenced to execution. He
was shot early on the morning of December 30, 1896.'
At his death the insurrection flamed out afresh. It now
spread to Pangasinan, Zambales, and Ilocos.

End of the. Revolt by Promises of Reform. — Pola-
vieja returned to Spain, and was succeeded by Gen.
Primo de Rivera, who arrived in the spring of 1897. The
Spanish troops had suffered several recent reverses and
the country swarmed with insurgents. The policy of
Primo de Rivera was to gain by diplomacy where the
energy of his predecessor had failed. In July, 1897, an
amnesty proclamation was issued, and in August the
governor-general opened negotiations with Aguinaldo,
whose headquarters were now in the mountains of Angat
in Bulacan. Primo de Rivera urged the home govern-

' An account of Rizal's trial and execution, together with many
papers on the revolution, is printed by Retana. See Archwo, Tomo IV.
Documentos politicos de Actualidad.

286 THE PHILIPPINES.

ment to make some reforms, which would greatly lessen
the political importance , of the friars. He was vehe-
mently opposed by the latter, but it was probably upon
the promise of reform that Aguinaldo and his fellow-
insurgents agreed, for the payment of 1,700,000 pesos, to
surrender their arms, dismiss the insurgent forces, and
themselves retire from the Islands. This agreement was
made, and on December 27, 1897, Aguinaldo left the port
of Sual for Hongkong.

The Spanish Misrule Ended. — Conditions in the prov-
inces still continued very unsatisfactory, and in its very
last hours the Spanish government lost the remnant of
its prestige with the people by a massacre in Calle Camba,
Binondo, of a company of Bisayan sailors. Ten days
after this occurrence a revolt blazed out on the island of
Cebu. Had events taken their course, what would have
been the final conclusion of the struggle between Span-
iards and Filipinos it is impossible to say. On the 25th
day of April the United States declared war upon Spain,
and the first day of May an American fleet reached Ma-
nila harbor, and in the naval fight off Cavite, Spanish
dominion, which had lasted with only one brief interrup-
tion for 332 years, was broken.

CHAPTER XIII.
AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES.

Beginning of a New Era. — With the passing of the
Spanish sovereignty to the Americans, a new era began
in the Phihppines. Already the old Spanish rule seems
so far removed that we can begin to think of it without
feeling and study it without prejudice.

Development of the United States of America. — The
American nation is the type of the New World. Begin-
ning in a group of colonies, planted half a century later
than the settlement of the Philippines, it has had a de-
velopment unparalleled in the history of states. Although
peopled by emigrants from Europe, who rigidly preserved
both their purity of race and pride of ancestry, the Amer-
ican colonists, at the end of a century, were far separated
in spirit and institutions from the Old World.

Struggle \yith the wilderness and with the savage pro-
duced among them a society more democratic and more
independent than Europe had ever known; while their
profoimd religious convictions saved the colonists from
barbarism and intellectual decline. It can truthfully be
held, that in 1775, at the outbreak of the American Rev-
olution, the colonists had abler men and greater political
ability than the mother-country of England. It was
these men who, at the close of the Revolution, framed
the American Constitution, the greatest achievement in
the history of public law. This nation, endowed at its
commencement with so precious an inheritance of politi-
cal genius, felt its civil superiority to the illiberal or in-
effective government* of Europe, and this feeUng has

287

Lungitude

290 THE PHILIPPINES.

produced in Americans a supreme and traditional con-
fidence in their own forms of government and democratic
standards of life. Certainly their history contains much
to justify the choice of their institutions.

A hundred and twenty-five years ago, these colonies
were a small nation of 2,500,000 people, occupying no
more than the Atlantic coast of ' the continent. Great
mountain chains divided them from the interior, which
svas overrun by the fiercest and most warlike type of
man that the races have produced — the American In-
lian. With an energy which has shown no diminishing
Tom generation to generation, the American broke through
:hese mountain chains, subdued the wilderness, conquered
:he Indian tribes, and in the space of three generations
Nas master of the continent of North America.

Even while engaged in the War for Independence, the
^erican frontiersman crossed the Appalachians and se-
mred Kentucky and the Northwest Territory, and with
;hem the richest and most productive regions of the
Temperate Zone, — the Mississippi Valley. In 1803, the
;reat empire of Louisiana, falling from the hand of France,
vas added to the American nation. In 1818, Florida was
;eded by Spain, and in 1857, as a result of war with
Mexico, came the Greater West and the Pacific seaboard.
This vast dominion, nearly three thousand miles in width
rom east to west, has been peopled by natural increase
md by immigration from Europe, until, at the end of the
lineteenth century, the American nation numbered sev-
;nty-four million souls.

This development has taken place without fundamental
jhange in the constitution or form of goverrmient, without
OSS of individual liberty, and constantly increasing na-
;ional prosperity. Moreover, the States have survived the

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 291

Civil War, the most bloody and persistently fought war
of all modern centuries — a war in which a million sol-
diers fell, and to sustain which three and a half billion
dollars in gold were expended out of the national treasury.
This war accomplished the abolition of negro slavery, the
greatest economic revolution ever effected by a single blow.

Such in brief is the history of the American nation, so
gifted with political intelligence, so driven by sleepless
energy, so proud of its achievements, and inwardly so
contemptuous of the more polished but less liberal life of
the Old World. Europe has never understood this nation,
and not until a few years ago did Europeans dream of its
progress and its power.

Relation of the United States to South American Repub-
lics. — Toward the republics of Spanish America the
United States has always stood in a peculiar relation.
These countries achieved their independence of Spain
under the inspiration of the success of the United States.
Their governments were framed in imitation of the Amer-
ican, and in spite of the turbulence and disorder of their
political life, the United States has always felt and mani-
fested a strong sympathy for these states as fellow-repub-
lics. She has moreover pledged herself to the mainte-
nance of their integrity against the attacks of European
powers. This position of the United States in threaten-
ing with resistance the attempt of any European power
to seize American territory is known as the Monroe Doc-
trine, because it was first declared by President Monroe
in 1823.

Sympathy of American People for the Oppressed Cubans.
— The fact that the American nation attained its own
independence by revolution has made the American people
give ready sympathy to the cause of the revolutionist.

292 THE PHILIPPINES.

The people of Cuba, who made repeated ineffective strug-
gles against Spanish sovereignty, always had the good
wishes of the American people. By international usage,
however, one nation may not recognize or assist revolu-
tionists against a friendly power until their independence
is practically effected.

Thus, when rebellion broke out afresh in Cuba in 1894,
the United States government actively suppressed the
lending of assistance to the Cubans, as was its duty, al-
though the American people themselves heartily wished
Cuba free. The war in Cuba dragged along for years and
became more and more merciless. The passions of Cu-
bans and Spaniards were so inflamed that quarter was
seldom given, and prisoners were not spared. Spain
poured her troops into the island until there were 120,000
on Cuban soil, but the rebellion continued.

The Spanish have always been merciless in dealing
with revolutionists. Americans, on the other hand, have
always conceded the moral right of a people to resist
oppressive government, and in the entire history of the
United States there has scarcely been a single punish-
ment for political crime. Although probably the fiercest
war in history was the American Civil War from 1861 to
1865, there was not a single execution for treason. Thus
the stories of the constant executions of political pris-
oners, on an island in sight of its own shores, greatly
exasperated America, as did the policy of Governor-gen-
eral Weyler, which was pxcessive in its severity.

War with Spain. — Destruction of the "Maine." — As
the contest proceeded without sign of termination, the
patience of the American people grew less. Then, Feb-
ruary 15, 1898, occurred one of the most deplorable events
of recent times. The American battleship "Maine," lying

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 293

in the harbor of Havana, was, in the night, blown to de-
struction by mine or torpedo, killing 266 American officers
and sailors. It is impossible to believe that so dastardly
an act was done with the knowledge of the higher Spanish
officials; but the American people rightly demanded that
a government such as Spain maintained in Cuba, unable
to prevent such an outrage upon the vessel of a friendly
power, and that could neither suppress its rebellion nor
wage war humanely, should cease.

Declaration of War. — On April 19th the American
Congress demanded that Spain withdraw from the island
and recognize the independence of Cuba. This was prac-
tically a declaration of war. Spain indignantly refused,
and resolved upon resistance.. Unfortunately, the igno-
rant European press claimed for Spain military and naval
superiority.

The war was brief, and was an overwhelming disaster
to Spain. Every vessel of her proud navy that came
under the fire of American guns was destroyed.

For a few months battle raged along the coasts of
Cuba, and then Spain sued for peace.

Deivey's Victory in Manila Bay. — But meanwhile
the war, begim without the slightest reference to the
Philippine Islands, had brought about surprising conse-
quences here.

At the opening of the war, both Spain and the United
States had squadrons in Asiatic waters. The Spanish
fleet lay at Cavite, the American ships gathered at Hong-
kong. Immediately on the declaration of war, the Amer-
ican naval commander, Dewey, was ordered to destroy
the Spanish fleet, which was feared on the Pacific coast of
America. Dewey entered the Bay of Manila in darkness
on the morning of May 1st, and made direct for the

294 THE PHILIPPINES.

Spanish vessels at Cavite. His fleet was the more power-
ful and immeasurably the more efficient. In a few hours
the Spanish navy was utterly destroyed and Manila lay
at the mercy of his guns.

.4 JVew Insurrection under Aguinaldo. — At this sig-
nal catastrophe to Spain, the smoldering insurrection in
the Islands broke out afresh. The Spanish troops not in
Manila were driven in upon their posts, and placed in a
position of siege. The friars, so hated by the revolution-
ists, were captured in large numbers and were in some
cases killed. With the permission and assistance of the
American authorities, Aguinaldo returned from Singapore,
and landed at Cavite. Here he immediately headed anew
the Philippine insurrection.

Capture of Manila. — Troops were dispatched from
San Francisco for the capture of Manila. By the end of
July, 8,500 men lay in the transports off Cavite. They
were landed at the little estuary of Paranaque, and ad-
vanced northwards upon Fort San Antonio and the de-
fenses of Malate. The Spaniards behind the city's defenses,
although outnumbering the Americans, were sick and
dispirited. One attempt was made to drive back the
invading army, but on the following day the Americans
swept through the defenses and line of blockhouses, and
Manila capitulated (August 13, 1898).

The Filipinos had scarcely participated in the attack
on the city, and they were excluded from occupying it
after its surrender. This act was justified, because the
Filipino forces had been very recently raised, the sol-
diers were undisciplined, and had they entered the city,
with passions as they were inflamed, it was feared by the
Americans that their officers might not be able to keep
them from looting and crime.-

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 295

Misunderstanding between Americans and Filipinos. ; —

Up to this point, the relations between the American and
Filipino armies had been friendly. But here began that
misurfderstanding and distrust which for so many months
were to alienate these two peoples and imbitter their
intercourse.

Provisional Government of the Filipinos- — In the
interval between the destruction of the Spanish fleet and
the capture of Manila, the Filipinos in Cavite had or-
ganized a provisional government and proclaimed the in-
dependence of the archipelago.

American Ideas in Regard to the Philippines. — The
idea of returning these islands to the Spanish power was
exceedingly repugnant to American sentiment. Spain's
attitude toward revolutionists was well understood in
America, and the Filipinos had acted as America's friends
and allies. On the other hand, the American government
was unwilling to turn over to the newly organized Filipino
republic the government of the archipelago. It was felt
in America, and with reason, that this Filipino govern-
ment was not truly representative of all the people in the
Philippihes, that the Filipino leaders were untried men,
and that the people themselves had not had political
training and experience. The United States, having over-
thrown the Spanish government here, was under obliga-
tion to see that the government established in its place
would represent all and do injustice to none. The Fili-
pinos were very slightly known to Americans, but their
educated class was believed to be small and their political
ability unproven. Thus, no assurances were given to the
Filipino leaders that their government would be recognized,
or that their wishes would be consulted in the future of
the Islands. In fact, these matters could be settled only

296

THE PHILIPPINES.

by action of the American Congress, which was late in
assembUng and slow to act.

The Terms of Peace. — Spain and America were now
negotiating terms of peace. These negotiations were con-
ducted at Paris, and dragged on during many critical

weeks. The Fili-
pinos were natu-
rally very much
concerned over
the outcome.

Finally, the
American govern-
m e n t demanded
of Spain that she
cede the Islands
to the Un ited
States and ac-
cept the s\mi of
$20,000,000 gold,
for public works
and improvements
which she had
made.

Suspicions of
the Fil i p ill o
Leaders. — These
terms became
Icnown in Decem-
ber, 1898. They served to a-v\(aken the worst suspicions
of the Filipino leaders. Many believed that they were
about to exchange the oppressive domination of Spain
for the selfish and equally oppressive domination of Amer-
ica. There is reason to believe that some leaders coun-

General Luna.

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES.

297

seled patience, and during the succeeding months made a
constant effort to maintain the peace, but the radical party
among the Filipinos was led by a man of real gifts and
fiery disposition, Antonio Luna. He had received an edu-
cation in Europe, had had some instruction in military
affairs, and when
in September the
Filipino govern-
ment was trans-
ferred to Malolos,
Luna became the
general in chief of
the military forces.
He was also editor
of the most radical
Filipino newspa-
per, "La Indepen-
dencia."

New Filipino
Government. — On
January 4, 1899,
President McKin-
ley issued a spe-
cial message to
General Otis, com-
manding the armies
of the United

States in the Philippines, declaring that American sover-
eignty must be recognized without conditions. It was
thought in the United States that a firm declaration of
this kind would be accepted by the Filipinos and that
they would not dare to make resistance. The intentions
of the American president and nation, as subsequent

Apolinario Mabini.

298 THE PHILIPPINES.

events have proven, were to deal with the Fihpinos
with great Uberality; but the president's professions
were not trusted by the Filipinos, and the result of
Mr. McKinley's message was to move them at once to
frame an independent government and to decide on
war.

This new government was framed at Malolos, Bulacan,
by a congress with representatives from most of the
provinces of central Luzon. The "Malolos Constitution"
was proclaimed January 23, 1899, and Don Emilio Agui-
naldo was elected president. The cabinet, or ministry,
included Don Apolinario Mabini, secretary of state ; Don
Teodoro Sandico, secretary of interior ; General Baldo-
mero Aguinaldo, secretary of war; General Mariano Trias,
secretary of treasury ; Don Engracio Gonzaga, secretary
of public instruction and agriculture.

War with the Americans. — Battle of Manila. — The
Filipino forces were impatient for fighting, and attack
on the American lines surrounding Manila began on the
night of February 4th. It is certain that battle had
been decided upon and in preparation for some time, and
"that fighting would have been begun in any case, before
the arrival of reinforcements from America; but the at-
tack was precipitated a little early by the killing at San
Juan Bridge of a Filipino officer who refused to halt when
challenged by an American sentry. On that memorable
and dreadful night, the battle raged with great fury along
the entire circle of defenses surrounding the city, from
Tondo on the north to Fort San Antonio de Abad, south
of the suburb of Malate. Along three main avenues from
the north, east, and south the Filipinos attempted to
storm and enter the capital, but although they charged
with reckless bravery, and for hours sustained a bloody

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 299

combat, they had fatally underestimated the fighting
qualities of the American soldier.

The volunteer regiments of the American army came
almost entirely from the western United States, where
young men are naturally trained to the use of arms, and
are imbued by inheritance with the powerful and aggres-
sive qualities of the American frontier. When morning
broke, the Filipino line of attack had, at every point, been
shattered and thrown back, and the Americans had
advanced their positions on the north to Caloocan, on
the east to the Water Works and the Mariquina Valley,
and on the south to Pasay.

Declaration of War. — Unfortunately, during the night
attack and before the disaster to Filipino arms was ap-
parent, Aguinaldo had laimched against the United States
a declaration of war. This declaration prevented the
Americans from trusting the Filipino overtures which
followed this battle, and peace was not made.

The Malolos Campaign. — On March 25th began the
American advance upon the Filipino capital of Malolos.
This Malolos campaign, as it is usually called, occupied
six days, and ended in the driving of the Filipino army
and government from their capital. Hard fighting took
place in the first days of this advance, and two extremely
worthy American officers were killed, Colonels Egbert and
Stotsenberg.

The Filipino army was pursued in its retreat as far as
Calumpit, where on the southern bank of the Rio Grande
de Pampanga the American line rested during the height
of the rainy season. During this interval the volunteer
regiments, whose terms of service had long expired, were
returned to the States, and their places taken by regi-
ments of the regular army.

300 THE PHILIPPINES.

The American Army. — The American army at that
time, besides the artillery, consisted of twenty-five regi-
ments -of infantry and ten of cavalry. Congress now-
authorized the organization of twenty-four new regiments
of infantry, to be known as the 26th to the 49th Regi-
ments of U. S. Volunteers, and one volunteer regiment of
cavalry, the 11th, for a service of two years. These
regiments were largely officered by men from civil life,
familiar with a great variety of callings and professions,
— men for the most part of fine character, whose services
in the months that followed were very great not only in
the field, but in gaining the friendship of the Filipino
people and in representing the character and intentions
of the American government.

Anti- War Agitators in America. — Through the sum-
mer of 1899 the war was not pressed by the American
general, nor were the negotiations with the Filipino leaders
conducted with success. The Filipinos were by no means
dismayed. In spite of their reverses, they believed the con-
quest of the Islands impossible to foreign troops. Further-
more, the war had met with tremendous opposition in Amer-
ica. Many Americans believed that the war was against
the fundamental rights of the Filipino people. They
attacked the administration with unspeakable bitterness.
They openly expressed sympathy for the Filipino revolu-
tionary cause, and for the space of two years their encour-
agement was an important factor in sustaining the rebellion.

Spread of the Insurrection. — In these same summer
months the revolutionary leaders spread their cause among
the surrounding provinces and islands. The spirit of re-
sistance was prominent at first only among the Tagdlog,
but gradually nearly all the Christianized population was
united in resistance to the American occupation.

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 301

Occupation of J^egros. — The Americans had mean-
while occupied Iloilo and the Bisayas, and shortly after-
wards the presidios in Mindanao surrendered by the
Spaniards. In Negros, also, exceptional circumstances had
transpired. The people in this island invited American
sovereignty; and Gen. James Smith, sent to the island in
March as governor, assisted the people in forming a liberal
government, through which insurrection and disorder in
that island were largely avoided.

Death of General Luna. — With the cessation of
heavy rains, the fighting was begun again in northern
Luzon. The Filipino army had its headquarters in Tarlac,
and its lines occupied the towns of the provinces of Pangas-
inan and Nueva Ecija, stretching in a long line of posts
from the Zambales Mountains almost to the upper waters
of the Rio Pampanga. It was still well armed, provis-
ioned, and resolute; but the brilliant, though wayward,
organizer of this army was dead. The Nationalist junta,
which had directed the Philippine government and army,
had not been able to reconcile its differences. It is re-
ported that Luna aspired to a dictatorship. He was killed
by soldiers of Aguinaldo at Cabanatuan.

The Campaign in Jforthern Luzon. — The American
generals now determined upon a strategic campaign.
General MacArthur was to command an advance up the
railroad from Calumpit upon Tarlac; General Lawton,
with a flying column of swift infantry and cavalry, was
to make a flanking movement eastward through Nueva
Ecija and hem the Filipino forces in upon the east. Mean-
while, General Wheaton was to convey a force by trans-
port to the Gulf of Lingayen, to throw a cordon across
the Ilocano coast that should cut off the retreat of the
Filipino army northward. As a strategic movement, this

Longitude East

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 303

campaign was only partially successful. MacArthur swept
northward, crushing the Filipino line on his front, his
advance being led by the active regiment of General
J. Franklin Bell. Lawton's column scoured the country
eastward, marching with great rapidity and tremendous
exertions. Swollen rivers were crossed with great loss of
life, and the column, cutting loose from its supplies, was
frequently in need of food. It was in this column that
the Filipino first saw with amazement the great American
cavalry horse, so large beside the small pony of the Phil-
ippines. Lawton's descent was so swift that the Philip-
pine government and staff narrowly escaped capture.

On the night of November 11th, the Filipino generals
held their last council of war at Bayambang on the Rio
Agno, and resolved upon dispersal. Meanwhile, Wheaton
had landed at San Fabian, upon the southern Ilocano
coast, but his force was insufficient to establish an effec-
tive cordon, and on the night of November 15th Agui-
naido, with a small party of ministers and officers, closely
pursued by the cavalry of Lawton under the command
of General Young, slipped past, through the mountains
of Pozorubio and Rosario, and escaped up the Ilocano
coast.

Then began one of the most exciting pursuits in re-
cent wars. The chase never slackened, except in those
repeated instances when for the moment the trail of
the Filipino general was lost. From Candon, Aguinaldo
turned eastward through the comandancias of Lepanto
and Bontoc, into the wild Igorrote country of the Cor-
dillera Central. The trail into Lepaiito leads over the
lofty mountains through the precipitous Tila Pass. On
the summit, in what was regarded as an impregnable
position, Gregorio del Pilar, little more than a boy, but a

304

THE PHILIPPINES.

brigadier-general, with a small force of soldiers, the rem-
nant of his command, attempted to cover the retreat of
his president. But a battalion of the 33d Infantry, under
Major March, carried the pass, with the total destruction
of Pilar's command, he himself falling amid the slain.

C aptur e of
Ag uina.ldo- —
Major March then
pursued Aguinaldo
into Bontoc and
thence southward
into the wild and
mountainous terri-
tory of Quiangan.
On Christmas
night, 1899, the
American soldiers
camped on the
crest of the Cordil-
lera, within a few
miles of the Igor-
rote village where
the Filipino force
was sleeping. Both
parties were broken
down and in dire
distress through
the fierceness of
the flight and pursuit, but for several weeks longer Agui-
naldo's party was able to remain in these mountains and
elude its pursuers. A month later, his trail was finally
lost in the valley of the Cagayan. He and his small party
had passed over the exceedingly difficult trail through the

General Pilar.

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 305

Sierra Madre Mountains, to the little Tagdlog town of
Palanan near the Pacific coast. Here, almost entirely cut
off from active participation in the insurrection, Aguinaldo
remained until June of 1901, when he was captured by
the party of General Funston.

For some weeks following the disintegration of the
Filipino army, the country appeared to be pacified and
the insurrection over. The new regiments arriving from
the United States, an expedition was formed under Gen-
eral Schwan, which in December and January marched
southward through Cavite and Lagima provinces and oc-
cupied Batangas, Tayabas, and the Camarines. Other
regiments were sent to the Bisayas and to northern Luzon,
until every portion of the archipelago, except the islands
of Mindoro and Palawan, contained large forces of Amer-
ican troops.

Reorganization of the Filipino Army. — The Filipinos
had, by no means, however, abandoned the contest, and
this period of quiet was simply a calm while the insur-
gent forces were perfecting their organization and prepar-
ing for a renewal of the conflict under a different form.
It being found impossible for a Filipino army to keep the
field, there was effected a secret organization for the
purpose of maintaining irregular warfare through every
portion of the archipelago. The Islands were partitioned
into a great number of districts or ''zones." At the
head of each was a zone commander, usually with the
rank of general. The operations of these men were, to a
certain extent, guided by the counsel or directions of the
secret revolutionary juntas in Manila or Hongkong, but,
in fact, they were practically absolute and independent,
and they exercised extraordinary powers. They recruited
their own forces and commissioned subordinate com-

B06 THU: PHILIPPINES.

manders. They levied "contributions" upon towns, own-
ers of haciendas, and individuals of every class, and there
was a secret civil or municipal organization for collecting
these revenues. The zone commanders, moreover, ex-
ercised the terrible power of execution by administrative
order.

Assassination of Filipinos. — Many of the Filipino
leaders were necessarily not well instructed in those
rules for the conduct of warfare which civilized peoples
have agreed upon as being humane and honorable. Many ■
of them tried, especially in the latter months of the war,
when understanding was more widely diffused, to make
their conduct conform to international usage; but the
revolutionary junta had committed the great crime of
ordering the punishment by assassination of all Filipinos
who failed to support the insurgent cause. No possible
justification, in the light of modern morality, can be found
for such a step as this. The very worst passions were
let loose in carrying out this policy. Scores of unfortu-
nate men were assassinated, many of them as the results
of private enmity. Endless blackmail was extorted and
communities were terrorized from one end of the archi-
pelago to the other.

Irregular Warfare of the Filipinos. — Through the
surrender of Spanish forces, the capture of the arsenals
of Cavite and Olongapo, and by purchase through Hong-
kong, the revolutionary government possessed between
thirty thousand and forty thousand rifles. These arms
were distributed to the different military zones, and the
secret organization which existed in each municipality
received its proportion. These guns were secreted by the
different members of the command, except when occasion
arose for effecting a surprise or making an attack. There

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 307

were no general engagements, but in some towns there
was almost nightly shooting. Pickets and small detach-
ments were cut off, and roads became so unsafe through-
out most of the archipelago that there was no travel by
Americans except under heavy escort. For a long time,
also, the orders of the commanding general were so lenient
that it was impossible to punish properly this conduct when
it was discovered.

Death of General Lawton. — The American army, in its
attempt to garrison every important town in the Islands,
was cut up into as many as 550 small detachments of post
garrisons. Thus, while there were eventually sixty thou-
sand American soldiers in the Islands, it was rare for as
many as five hundred to take the field, and most of the
engagelnents of the year 1900 were by small detachments
of fifty to one hundred men.

It was in one of these small expeditions that the Ameri-
can army suffered the greatest single loss of the war. A
few miles east of Manila is the beautiful Mariquina Valley,
from which is derived the city's supply of water, and the
headwaters of this pretty stream He in the wild and pictur-
esque fastness of San Mateo and Montalban. Although
scarce a dozen miles from the capital and the headquar-
ters of a Filipino brigade, San Mateo was not permanently
occupied by the Americans until after the 18th of Decem-
ber, 1899, when a force tmder General Lawton was led
around through the hills to surprise the town.

Early in the morning the American force came pouring
down over the hills that lie across the river from the vil-
lage. They were met by a brisk fire from the insurgent
command scattered along the banks of the river and in a
sugar hacienda close to the stream. Here Lawton, con-
spicuous in white uniform and helmet, accompanying, as

308 THE PHILIPPINES.

was his custom, the front line of skirmishers, was struck
by a bullet and instantly killed.

Filipino Leaders Sent to Guam. — In November, 1900,
after the reelection in the United States of President
McKinley, a much more vigorous pohcy of war was
inaugurated. In this month General MacArthur, com-
manding the division, issued a notable general order,
defining and explaining the laws of war which were
being violated, and threatening punishment by impris-
onment of those guilty of such conduct. Some thousands
of Filipinos under this order were arrested and impris-
oned. Thirty-nine leaders, among them the high-minded
but irreconcilable Mabini, were in December, 1900, sent to
a military prison on the island of Guam.

Campaigning was much more vigorously prosecuted in
all military districts. By this time all the American offi-
cers had become familiar with the insurgent leaders, and
these were now obliged to leave the towns and establish
cuartels in remote barrios and in the mountains.

These measures, pursued through the winter of 1900-01,
broke the power of the revolution.

The Philippine Civil Commission. — Another very influ-
ential factor in producing peace resulted from the presence
and labors of the Civil Philippine Commission. These
gentlemen, Judge William H. Taft, Judge Luke E. Wright,
Judge Henry C. Ide, Professor Dean C. Worceslier, and
Professor Bernard Moses, were appointed by the president
in the spring of 1900 to legislate for the Islands and to
prepare the way for the estabUshment of civil government.
President McKinley's letter of instructions to this com-
mission will probably be ranked as one of the ablest and
most notable public papers in American history.

The commission reached the Islands in June and began

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES.

309

their legislative work on September 1st. This body of
men, remarkable for . their high character, was able at
last to bring about an understanding with the Filipino
leaders and to assure them of the unselfish and honorable
purposes of the American government. Thus, by the early
winter of 1900-01 many Filipino gentlemen became con-
vinced that the best interests of the Islands lay in accept-
ing American sovereignty, and that they could honorably
advocate the surrender
of the insurgent forces.
These men represented
the highest attainments
and most influential po-
sitions in the Islands.
In December they
formed an association
known as the Federal
Party, for the purpose
of inducing the surren-
der of military leaders,
obedience to the Amer-
ican government, and
the acceptance of peace.

End of the Insurrec-
tion. — Under these influences, the insurrection, in the
spring of 1901, went rapidly to pieces. Leader after leader
surrendered his forces and arms, and took the oath of alle-
giance and quietly returned home. By the end of June
there were but two zone commanders who had not sur-
rendered, — General Malvar in Batangas, and General
Lukban in Samar.

The First Civil Governor. — Peaceful conditions and se-
curity almost immediately followed these surrenders and

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Governor Taft.

310 THE PHILIPPINES.

determined the president to establish at once civil govern-
ment. On July 4, 1901, this important step was taken,
Judge Taft, the president of the Philippine Commission,
taking office on that date as the first American civil gov-
ernor of the Philippines. On September 1st, the Philip-
pine Commission was increased by the appointment of
three Filipino members, — the Hon. T. H. Pardo de Tavera,
M. D., the Hon. Benito Legarda, and the Hon. Jose Luzu-
riaga of Negros.

The Philippine Commission has achieved a remarkable
amount of legislation of a very high order. From Sep-
tember, 1900, to the end of December, 1902, the com-
mission passed no less than 571 acts of legislation. Some
of these were of very great importance and involved long
preparation and labor. Few administrative bodies have
ever worked harder and with greater results than the
Philippine Commission during the first two years of its
activity. The frame of government in all its branches
had to be organized and set in motion, the civil and crim-
inal law liberalized, revenue provided, and public instruc-
tion remodeled on a very extensive scale.

The New Government. — The government is a very lib-
eral one, and one which gives an increasing opportunity
for participation to the Filipinos. It includes what is
called local self-government. There are in the Islands
about 1,132 municipalities. In these the residents prac-
tically manage their own affairs. There are thirty-eight
organized provinces in the archipelago, in which the ad-
ministration rests with the Provincial Board composed of
the governor, treasurer, and supervisor or engineer. The
governor is elected for the term of one year by the coun-
cilors of all the towns united in assembly. The treas-
urer and supervisor are appointed by the governor of the

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES.

311

Philippine archipelago under the rules of the Civil Ser-
vice Board. The civil service is a subject which has
commanded the special consideration of the Commission.
It gives equal opportunity to the Filipino and to the
American to enter the public service and to gain public
promotion; and the Filipino is by law even given the
preference where possessed of the requisite ability.

The Palace, Manila. Headquarters of the Government.

The Insular Government. — For the purposes of admin-
istration, the insular, or central government of the Islands
is divided into four branches, called departments, each
directed by a secretary who is also a member of the Phil-
ippine Commission. These departments are, interior, Sec-
retary Worcester; finance and justice. Secretary Ide; com-
merce and police, Secretary Wright; and public instruc-
tion, Secretary Moses, until January 1, 1903, and since

312 THE PHILIPPINES.

that date Secretary Smith. Under each of these departr
ments are a large number of bureaus, by which the many
important activities of the government are performed.

We have only to examine a list of these bureaus to see
how many-sided is the work which the government is
performing. It is a veritable commonwealth, complete in
all the branches which demand the attention of modern
governments. Thus, imder the Department of the Inte-
rior, there is the Bureau of Public Health, with its ex-
tremely important duties of combating epidemic diseases
and improving public sanitation, with its public hospitals,
sanitariums, and charities; the Bureau of Goverrmient
Laboratories for making bacteriological and chemical in-
vestigations; a Bureau of Forestry; a Bureau of Mining;
the Philippine Weather Bureau; a Bureau of Agriculture;
a Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes for conducting the gov-
ernment work in ethnology and for framing legislation for
pagan and Mohammedan tribes; and a Bureau of Public
Lands.

Under the department of Commerce and Police are
the Bureau of Posts; Signal Service; the Philippines
Constabulary, really an insular army, with its force of
some sixty-five hundred officers and men; Prisons; the
Coast Guard and Transportation Service, with a fleet of
about twenty beautiful little steamers, nearly all of them
newly built for this service and named for islands of the
archipelago; the Coast and Geodetic Survey, doing the
much-needed work of charting the dangerous coasts and
treacherous waters of the archipelago; and the Bureau of
Engineering, which has under its charge great public
works, many of which are already under way.

Under the Department of Finance and Justice are the
Insular Treasurer; the Insular Auditor; the Bureau of

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 313

Customs and Immigration; the Bureau of Internal Rev-
enue; the Insular Cold Storage and Ice Plant; and the
great Bureau of Justice.

Under the Department of Public Instruction there is
the Bureau of Education in charge of the system of public
schools; a Bureau of Printing and Engraving, with a new
and fully equipped plant; a Bureau of Architecture; a
Bureau of Archives; a Bureau of Statistics; and the
Philippine Museum.

Reveinies and Expenditures. — The maintenance of
these numerous activities calls for an expenditure of large
sums of money, but the insular government and the Filipino
people are fortunate in having had their finances man-
aged with exceptional ability. The revenues of the Islands
for the past fiscal year have amounted to about $10,638,-
000, gold. Public expenditures, including the purchase
of equipment such as the coast-guard fleet and the forward-
ing of great public works such as the improving of the
harbor of Manila, amounted during fiscal year of 1903 to
about $9,150,000, gold. The government has at all times
preserved a good balance in its treasury; but the past
year has seen some diminution in the amount of revenues,
owing to the great depreciation of silver money, the fall-
ing off of imports, the wide prevalence of cholera, and the
poverty of many parts of the country as a result of war
and the loss of livestock through pest. To assist the gov-
ernment of the Philippines, the Congress of the United
States in February, 1903, with great and characteristic
generosity appropriated the sum of $3,000,000, gold, as a
free gift to the people and government of the Philippines.

The Judicial System. — Especially fortunate, also, have
been the labors of the commission in establishing a judi-
cial system and revising the Spanish law. The legal

314 THE PHILIPPINES.

ability of the commission is unusually high. As at present
constituted, the judicial system consists of a Supreme
Court composed of seven justices, three of whom at the
present time are Filipinos, which, besides trying cases over
which it has original jurisdiction, hears cases brought on
appeal from the Courts of First Instance, fifteen in num-
ber, which sit in different parts of the Islands. Each town,
moreover, has its justices of the peace for the trial of
small cases and for holding preliminary examinations in
cases of crimes. By the new Code of Civil Procedure,
the administration of justice has been so simplified that
there are probably no courts in the world where justice
can be more quickly secured than here.

System of Public Schools. — Probably no feature of the
American government in the Islands has attracted more
attention than the system of public schools. Popular
education, while by no means wholly neglected under the
Spanish government, was inadequate, and was continu-
ally opposed by the clerical and conservative Spanish
forces, who feared that the liberalizing of the Filipino
people would be the loosening of the control of both
Spanish state and church. On the contrary, the success
of the American government, as of any government in
which the people participate, depends upon the intelli-
gence and education of the people. Thus, the American
government is as anxious to destroy ignorance and pov-
erty as the Spanish government and the Spanish church
were desirous of preserving these deeply unfortunate con-
ditions.

Americans believe that if knowledge 'is generally spread
among the Filipino people, if there can be a real under-
standing of the genius and purpose of our American insti-
tutions, there will come increasing content and satisfac-

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 315

fcion to dwell under American law. Thus, education was
early encouraged by the American army, and it received
the first attention of the commission. The widespread
system of public schools which now exists in these islands
was organized by the first General Superintendent of Pub-
he Instruction, Dr. Fred W. Atkinson, and by Professor
Bernard Moses of the Philippine Commission.

Instruction in the English Language. — The basis
of this public instruction is the English language. This
was early decided upon in view of the great number of
Filipino dialects, the absence of a common native language
or literature, and the very moderate acquaintance with
Spanish by any except the educated class.

It is fortimate for the Filipino people that English has
been introduced here and that its knowledge is rapidly
spreading. Knowledge of language is power, and the
more widely spoken the tongue, the greater the possession
of the individual who acquires it. Of all the languages
of the world, English is to-day the most widely spoken
and is most rapidly spreading. Moreover, English is pre-
eminently the language of the Far East. From Yoko-
hama to Australia, and from Manila to the Isthmus of
Suez, English is the common medium of communication.
It is the language alike of business and of diplomacy.
The Filipino people, so eager to participate in all the busy
life of eastern Asia, so ambitious to make their influence
felt and their counsels regarded, will be debarred from
all this unless they master this mighty English tongue.

The Filipino Assembly. — Thus, after four and a half
years of American occupation, the sovereignty of the
United States has been established in the archipelago, and
a form of government, unique in the history of colonial
administration, inaugurated. One other step in the con-

316 THE PHILIPPINES.

templation of Congress, which will still further make the
government a government of the Filipino people, remains
to be taken. This is the formation of a Filipino assembly
of delegates or representatives, chosen by popular vote
from all the Christianized provinces of the archipelago.
The recent census of the Philippines will form the basis for
the apportionmeut of this representation. This assembly
will share the legislative power on all matters pertaining
to the Christian people of the Philippines and those parts
of the Islands inhabited by them. When this step shall
have been taken, the government of the Philippine Islands
will be like the typical and peculiarly American form of
government known as territorial.

Territorial Form of Government in the United States, —
The American Union is composed of a number of states
or commonwealths which, while differing vastly in wealth
and population, are on absolutely equal footing in the
Union. The inhabitants of these states form politically
the American sovereignty. They elect the president and
Congress, and through their state legislatures may change
or amend the form of the American state itself.

Besides these states, there have always been large pos-
sessions of the nation called territories. These territories
are extensive countries, too sparsely inhabited or too un-
developed politically to be admitted, in the judgment of
the American Congress, to statehood in the Union. Their
inhabitants do not have the right to vote for the presi-
dent; neither have they representation in the American
Congress. These territories are governed by Congress,
through territorial governments, and over them Congress
has full sovereign powers'. That is, as the Supreme Court
of the United States has decided and explained, while
Congress when legislating for the states in the Union has

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 317

only those powers of legislation which have been specifi-
cally granted by the Constitution, in legislating for the
territories it has all the powers which the Constitution
has not specifically denied. The only limitations on Con-
gress are those which, under the American system of public
law, guarantee the liberty of the individual, — his freedom
of religious belief and worship; his right to just, open,
and speedy trial; his right to the possession of his prop-
erty; and other precious privileges, the result of centuries
of development in the English-speaking race, which make
up civil liberty. These priceless securities, which no
power of the government can take away, abridge, or in-
fringe, are as much the possession of the inhabitants of
a territory as of a state.'

The government of these territories has varied greatly
in form and may be changed at any time by Congress,
but it usually consists of a governor and supreme court,
appointed by the president of the United States, and a
legislature elected by the people. Since 1783 there has
always been territory so held and governed by the United
States, and if we may judge from the remarkable history
of these regions, this form of government of dependent
possessions is the most successful and most advantageous
to the territory itself that has ever been devised.

At the present time, the territories of the United States
are Oklahoma, the Indian Territory, New Mexico, Ari-

' See the decisions of the Supreme Court in the "cases of American
Insurance Co. v. Canter (1 Peters, 511), decided in 1828; National
Bank v. County of Yankton (101 U. S. Reports, 129), decided in 1879;
The Mormon Church v. United States (136 U. S. Reports, 1), decided
May, 1890. On the domain of personal liberty possessed by the in-
habitants of a territory, in addition to above cases, see also the cases
of Reynolds v. United States (98 U. S. Reports, 154), 1878; and Murphy
V. Ramsey (114 U. S. Reports, 15), 1884.

318 THE PHILIPPINES.

zona; Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, Porto Rico, the Phil-
ippines, and Guam.

The territorial form of government has frequently been
regarded by American statesmen as a temporary condi-
tion to be followed at a comparatively early date by
statehood. But after more than a century of develop-
ment, territorial- government, as shaped by Congress and
as defined by the Supreme Court, shows itself so flexible
and advantageous that there is no reason why it should
not be regarded as a permanent and final form. Whether
it will long prevail in the Philippines, depends very largely
upon the political development and ultimate desires of
the Filipino people themselves. For the present, it is the
only suitable form of goverimient and the only form
which it is statesmanlike to contemplate.

Filipino Independence. — The events of the last few
years seem to indicate that the American nation will not
intrust the Philippines with independence until they have
immeasurably gained in political experience and social
self-control. The question is too great to be discussed
here, but this much may be said: The rapid march of
international politics in this coming century will not be
favorable to the independence of the small and imper-
fectly developed state. Independence, while it may fas-
cinate the popular leader, may not be most advantageous
for this people. Independence, under present tendencies
of international trade, means economic isolation. Inde-
pendence, in the present age, compels preparedness for
war; preparedness for war necessitates the maintenance of
strong armies, the building of great navies, and the great
economic burdens required to sustain these armaments.
Especially would this be true of an archipelago so exposed
to attack, so surrounded by ambitious powers, and so

AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES. 319

near the center of coming struggle, as are the Phihppines.
Japan, with a population of forty-two million, wonderful
for their industry and economy, and passionately devoted
to their emperor, is independent, but at great cost. The
burden of her splendid army and her modern navy weighs
heavily upon her people, consumes a large proportion of
their earnings, and sometimes seems to be threatening to
strain the resources of the nation almost to the point of
breaking.

Advantages of American Control. — Surely, a people is
economically far more privileged if, Uke the Philippines
under the American government, or Australia under the
British, they are compelled to sustain no portion of the
burden of exterior defense. The navies of the United
States to-day protect the integrity of the Philippine archi-
pelago. The power of a nation so strong and so terrible,
when once aroused, that no country on the globe would
think for a minute of wantonly molesting its territory,
shields the Filipino from all outside interference and per-
mits him to expend all his energy in the development of
those abilities to which his temperament and endowment
inspire him.

American government means freedom of opportunity.
There is no honorable pursuit, calling, or walk of life
under heaven in which the Filipino may not now engage
and in which he will not find his endeavors encouraged
and his success met with generous appreciation. In poli-
tics, his progress may be slow, because progress here is
not the development of the individual nor of the few, but
of the whole. But in the no less noble pursuits of science,
literature, and art, we may in this very generation see
FiUpinos achieving more than notable success and dis-
tinction, not only for themselves but for their land.

320 THE PHILIPPINES.

Patriotic Duty. — Patriotic duty, as regards the Philip-
pines, means for the American a wholesome belief in the
uprightness of the national purposes; a loyal appreciation
of the men who have here worked wisely and without
selfishness, and have borne the brunt of the toil; a loyalty
to the government of the Philippines and of the United
States, so long as these governments live honestly, rule
justly, and increase liberty; and a frank and hearty rec-
ognition of every advance made by the Filipino people
themselves. And for the Filipinos, patriotic duty means
a full acceptance of government as it has now been estab-
lished, as better than what has preceded, and perhaps
superior to what he himself would have chosen and could
have devised; a loyalty to his own people and to their
interests and to the public interests, that shall overcome
the personal selfishness that has set its cruel mark on
every native institution in this land; and a resolution to
obey the laws, preserve the peace, and use faithfully
every opportunity for the development of his own char-
acter and the betterment of the race.

APPENDIX.

SPANISH GOVERNORS OF THE PHILIPPINES.
(1571-1898.)

1571-1572 Don Miguel Lopez de Legaspi.

1572-1575 (Tesorero) Guido de Labezares.

1575-15S0 Don Francisco La-Sande.

1580-1583 Don Gonzalo Ronquillo.

1583-1584 Don Diego Ronquillo.

1584r-1590 Dr. Don Santiago de Vera.

1590-1593 Don Gomez Perez de Dasmarinas.

1593-1595 Luis Perez Dasmarinas.

1595-1596 Don Antonio de Morga.

1596-1602 Don Francisco Tello de Guzman.

1602-1606 Don Pedro Bravo de Acuiia.

1606-1608 Royal Audiencia.

1608-1609 Don Rodrigo Vivero.

1609-1616 Don Juan de Silva.

1616-1618 Don Andres Alcazar.

1618-1624 Don Alonso Faxardo y Tenza.

1624-1625 Royal Audiencia.

1625-1626 Don Fernando de Silva.

1626-1632 Don Juan Nino de Tabora.

1632-1633 Royal Audiencia.

1633-1635 Don Juan Zerezo de Salamanca.

1635-1644 Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera.

1644-1653 Don Diego Faxardo y Chacon.

1653-1663 Sabiano Manrique de Lara.

1663-1668 Don Diego Salcedo.

1668-1669 Seiior Pena Bonifaz.

1669-1677 Don Manuel de Leon.

1677-1678 Royal Audiencia.

1678-1684 Don Juan de Vargas.

1684-1689 Don Gabriel de Curuzalequi.

1689-1690 Don Alonso de Avila Fuertes.

321

322

THE PHILIPPINES.

1690-1701 Don Fausto Cruzat y Gongora.

1701-1709 Don Domingo Zabalburu.

1709-1715 Conde de Lizarraga.

1715-1717 Royal Audiencia.

1717-1719 Don Fernando Manuel de Bustamante.

1719-1721 Archbishop Cuesta.

1721-1729 Don Toribio 3osi de Cosio y Campo (Marques de Torre

Campo).

1729-1739 Don Fernando Valdes y Tamon.

1739-1745 Don Caspar de la Torre.

1745-1750 Bishop Father Juan de Arrechedra.

1750-1754 Don Francisco Jos(5 de Obando y Solis.

1754^1759 Don Pedro Manuel de Arandia y Santisteban.

1759-1761 Don Miguel Lino de Ezpeleta (Bishop of Zebu).

1761-1764 Archbishop Don Manuel Antonio Rojo del Rio y Vieyra.

1764^1764 Dr. Don Simon de Anda y Salazar.

1164-1765 Don Francisco de la Torre.

1765-1770 Don Jos6 Raon.

1770-1778 Dr. Don Simon de Anda y Salazar.

1778-1787 Don Jos6 Basco y Vargas.

1787-1788 Don Pedro Sarrio.

1788-1793 Don Felix Berenguer de Marquina.

1793-1806 Don Rafael Maria de Aguilar y Ponce de Leon.

1806-1810 Don Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras.

1810-1813 Don Manuel Gonzalez Aguilar.

1813-1816 Don Jos6 de Gardoqui Jaraveitia.

1816-1822 Don Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras.

1822-1825 Don Juan Antonio Martinez.

1825-1830 Don Mariano Ricafort Palacio y Abarca.

1830-1835 Don Pascual Enrile y Alcedo.

1835-1836 Don Gabriel de Torres.

1836-1838 Don Andres Garcia Camba.

1838-1^41 Don Luis Lardizabal y Montojo.

1841-1843 Don Marcelino de Oraa Lecumberri.

1843-1844 Don Francisco de Paula Aloald de la Torre.

1844-1850 Don Naroiso ClaverJa y Zaldua.

1850-1850 Don Antonio Maria Blanco.

1850-1853 D. Antonio de Urbiztondo, Marques de la Solana y

Teniente General.

APPENDIX.

323

1853-1854 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero, General

Segundo Cabo (acting) .
1854-1854 EI Teniente General Marques de Novaliches.
1854-1854 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero (acting).
1854^1856 El Teniente General de Manuel Crespo.
1856-1857 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero (acting).
1857-1860 El Teniente General de Fernando de Norzagaray.
1860-1860 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Solano y LUnderal

(acting).
1860-1861 El Brigadier de Artilleria de Juan Herrera Ddvila

(acting).
1861-1862 El Teniente General de Jose Lemery.
1862-1865 El Teniente General de Rafael Echagiie.
1865-1865 El Mariscal de Campo de Joaquin Solano (acting).
1865-1866 El Teniente General de Juan do Lara e Irigoyen.
1866-1866 El Mariscal de Campo de Juan Laureano Sanz (acting).
1866-1866 El Comandante General de Marina de Antonio Ossorio

(acting).
1866-1866 El Mariscal de Campo de Joaquin Solano (actilig).
1866-1866 El Teniente General de Jose de la Gdndara.
1866-1869 El Mariscal de Campo de Manuel Maldonado (acting).
1869-1871 El Teniente General de Carlos de la Torre.
1871-1873 El Teniente General de Rafael Izquierdo.
1873-1873 El Comandante General de Marina de Manuel Mac-

Crohon (acting).
1873-1874 El Teniente General de Juan Alaminos y Vivar.
1874-1874 El Mariscal de Campo de Manuel Blanco Valderrama

(acting).
1874-1877 El Contra Almirante de la Armada de Jos6 Malcampo

y Monje.
1877-1880 El Teniente General de Domingo Moriones y Murillo.
1880-1880 El Comandante General de Marina de Rafael Rodri-
guez Arias (acting).
1880-1883 El Teniente General de Fernando Prime de Rivera,

Marques de Estella.
1883-1883 El Mariscal de Campo de Emilio de Molins, General

Segundo Cabo (acting).
1883-1885 El Capitan General del Ejercito de Joaquin Jovellar

y Soler.

324 THE PHILIPPINES.

1885-1885 El Mariscal de Campo de Emilio de Molins (acting).

1885-1888 El Teniente General de Emilio Terrero.

1888-1888 El Mariscal de Campo de Antonio Molto (acting).

1888-1888 El Cotra Almirante de la Armada de Federico Loba-
ton (acting).

1888-1891 El Teniente General de Valeriano Weyler.

1891-1893 El Teniente General de Eulogio Despojol, Conde de
Caspe.

1893-1893 EI General de Division de Federico Ochando, General
Segundo Cabo (acting).

1893-1896 El Teniente General de Ramon Blanco y Erenas,
Marques de Pena-Plata.

1896-1897 El Teniente General de Camilo G. de Polavieja, Mar-
ques de Polavieja.

1897-1897 de' Jos6 de Lachambre y Dominguez, Teniente Gen-
eral (acting).

1897-1898 de Fernando Primo de Rivera, Capitan General, Mar-
quis de Estella.

1898-1898 de Basilio Augustin Teniente General del Ejercito.

1898-1898 El General Segundo Cabo de Fermin Jaudenes y
Alvarez.

INDEX.

PAGE

PAGE

Abra

257

Auditor, Insular .

312

Acufia, Don Pedro Bravo de

191

Augustinian Order

. 121

Adelantado .

109

Azores discovered

63

Aeta .... 25, 34, 99

African coast, exploration of

62

Bajan .

268

Agriculture . 242

,312

Balboa

73

Aguinaldo, Emilio , 283

, 294

Bantilan

226

298

,304

Barangay .

102

Aquinaldo, Gen. Baldomero

298

Batanes Islands .

244

Albuquerque .

66

Bathala ...

105

Alcandora, Raja . .

133

Bell, General J. Franklin

303

Alim ud Din, conversion of

226

Benedictines

120

Aliping namamahay . .

103

Benguet . .

257

Aknanzar .

82

Bibliographies

21

Alphabet, Filipino

96

Bicol ....

35

America —

Biscaino, Sebastian

. 171

and the Philippines 287

-321

Bisaya ....

35, 130

named

71

Blair, Miss E. H.

22

revolution in .

249

Blood compact .

80

wars in

248

Bohol . . 206,

225, 257

American control . .

319

Bonifacio, Andres

. 282

Anda y Salazar, Don Simon

Borneo —

de

236

Mohammedans in

40

Anitos. . . . .

105

Spanish expedition to

145

Anson

21

Bowring, Sir John

21

Anti-War Agitators in Amer-

Brooke, Charles

272

ica . .

300

Burgos, Dr. Jos6

279

Arandi'a, Governor

228

BUshido

59

Architecture, Bureau of

313

Bustamante, Fernando Man-

Archives, Bureau of

313

uel de . . . .

217

Ar^valo . . . 147,

172

Argeusola, Leonardo de

17

Cabalian discovered

127

Armada, destruction of

177

Cabots, voyage of the

70

Atkinson, Dr. Fred W.

315

Caceres, Nueva

172

Audiencia, Royal . .

109

Cagayanes .

35

abolished .

149

Calambu Raja

79

reestablished .

153

Calvin, John . .

122

325

326

INDEX.

PAGE

Campo, Governor Torre . . 219

Canaries discovered .... 63
Cano, Juan Sebastian del 83, 114

Cantava, Padre .... 22.5

Carreri .... 21

Caribs 72

Carillo, Don Pedro ..... 280

Carolines 117, 224

Casas, Las 72, 111

Cavendish, Thomas .... 175

Cavite revolt 279

Cebu 79, 130, 172

Cedulas, Royal 20

Century of obscurity . . 212

Chabucano 266

Chaniorros 214

Chao Ju-kua 97

Charles V 73

Chavfe, Captain Juan ... 146

Chavfe, Don Juan de . . . 197

China about 1400 . . . 56
Chinese — ■

attempt to capture Man-
ila 140

distrust of 182

immigration restricted . 183

in the Philippines . 97

first massacre of . . 182

treaty with the . . . 144

uprising of 207

Chirino, Father Predo ... 16

Church 119,147

Ciagu, Raja 79

Cipango ......... 67

Cities, largest 171

CivU commission . . . . 308

Civil Governor, first . . 309

Claudio, Don Juan .... 202

Claveria, General . . 265

Clemente, Juan . . . 170

Clive, Lord 233

Coast and Geodetic Survey . 312

Coast Guard 312

Code of Civil Procedure 314

Cofradia . . . 264

PAGE

Cold Storage and Ice Plant . 313

Colin, Father Francisco 17

Colonial Policy of Spain 113

Colonization restricted. 112

Columbus, Christopher . 66

Combes, Father Francisco 18

Commerce restricted . 112

Commerce and Police . . 312

Commercial House ... 113

Conquest and Settlement . 125

Constabulary . . 312

Constitution, American 287

Contratacion, Casa de . 113

Corala .... . 82

Corcuera, Hortado de 197

Cornish, Admiral . 234

Corregidor, battles near . 193

Cortes 73, 109, 116

Courts 314

Crusades 48

Cruz, Apolinario de la . 263

Cuba discovered . . 68
Cubans, American sympatiiy

for 291

Customs and Immigration,

Bureau of . . . . 313

Da Gama, Vaseo . .

65

Dampier . . .

21

Dasmarifias ....

149

Dato

102

Decree of 1589 .

149

Desventuradas . .

76

De Vera, Dr. Santiago

148

Dewey's victory

. 293

Diaz, Bartholomew .

65

Dog(5hoy

226, 257

Dominic, Saint .

. . 120

Dominicans .

120, 148

Drake, Sir Francis .

144

Draper, General

234

Ducos, Father .

229

Diitch —

at Mariveles . .

154

capture Chinese JunI

cs 193

INDEX.

327

Dutch — Continued

conflicts with. . . .

expedition against ,

expeditions to Indies

in Formosa ....

trading methods of .
Dutch and Moro wars
Dyalcs 33

PAGE

208
191
189
194
190
187-211

East, Far

Earth

Education, Bureau of
Educational system .
Educational work of the
ligious orders . . .
EncomenderQS . .
Encomiendas ....
Engineering, Bureau of
England about 1400 . .
England and France .
English Language . . .
Esteybar, Don Francisco
Ethnology, study of
Europe, wars in . . .
Explorers, Spanish . .

51, 56
53, 66
. 313

. 274

. 205

111

157

312

46

. 232

. 315

208

25

248

109

de

Femandina 172

Fetishes among the Filipinos 103

Feudalism 43

Figueroa, Rodriguez de . . 151

Filipino alphabet, source of 96

Filipino independence . . 318
Filipino people before the
arrival of the Spaniards

88-107

Filipino writings, early . 96
Filipinos —

assassination of . . 306

classes of . . . . . 103

converted to Christianity 168

distribution of . . . . 88

in eighteenth century . 225

in movement for reform 279

increase in educated. . . 277

PAGE

Filipinos — Continued

liberal ideas among . . . 273
life and progress of . . 206
material progress of . . 106
misunderstanding be-
tween Americans and . 295
reorganize army . 305
religion of . . . 105
under the Encomiendas 161
Finance and Justice, De-
partment of 312

Florida discovered . . 73
Food, scarcity of . . .165

Forestry, Bureau of ... 312

Formosa 194, 202

France —

about 1400 46

war between England and 232

Francis of Assisi, Saint . . 121
Franciscans . . . 121, 152, 205

French revolution . . 249
Friars —

attitude toward education 277

coming of . . . . 168

Missionary, efforts of 149

opposed 279

organization of . ... 120

repress the people .... 263

resist English 236

Funston, General . . 305

Galleons, capture of . 175

Gallinato Juan . 153

Gama, Vasco da 65

Geographical discoveries . 61-87

Germany about 1400 ... 46

Gibbon, Edward 42

Gil, Padre 283

Goiti, Mertin de 133

Gomez, Father 280

Gonzaga, Don Eugracio . . 298

Goyti 127

Guam 214, 308

Guzman Don Francisco TeHo

de 152

328

INDEX.

Hai-tan 99

Haiti discovered . 68

Hamalbar 80

Hari 102

Health, Bureau of Public 312

Henry, Prince . 61

Herrada, Friar Martin 130
flindus —

in the Philippines . 92

Malays and 36

Hispaniola discovered . . 68

Historical materials, recent 19
History . . .12, 15

Holy Child of Cebu . 129

Homonh6n . . 78

Hospitals . . . 205

Horses 107

Ibanag dialect . . . . 35

Ibilao . . 34

Tde, Henry C. . . 308

Idols among the Filipinos . 105
Igorrote provinces . . 244

Igorrotes . . .34

Ilocano . 35

Iloilo . 172, 262

Ilongotes 34

India . . 36, 56, 61, 66

Indies, Dutch expedition to 189

Indies, West

Instruction, Department of
Interior, Department of . .
Instruction in English . .
Insular Government
Internal Revenue, Bureau of
Inquisition . . .
Islands, naming of
It Coan ....
Ita . . .
Italy —

about 1400 .
lyeydsu . ...

70
313
312
315
311
313
122, 212

. 118
209

. 25

. 46
59

Jagor

21

Japan —

about 1400 67

development of . .9

Japanese colony . . . 185

Jesuits —

activity of . . . . 226

arrival of ... . 151

a source of historical in-
formation . 17
expulsion of . . 238
increase in wealth . 237
organized . . . . 123
return of ... . 274

John I of Portugal .... 61

Jolo —

conquest of
forts destroyed at
treaty with sultan of

Jomonj61 . .

Judicial system

Justice, Bureau of

Kaan, the Great

Kabunsuan

Kabunian

Katipunan

Koxinga

Kue-Sing

Laboratories, Government . 312

Lacandola, Raja . . . 133
Ladrone Islands —

colonized 213

depopulation of . . . 215

discovered . 76

visited by Dampier . 21

Lands, Bureau of Public . 312

Language, development of 49

Languages of the Malayans 90

Laon 105

Lara, Don Sabiano Mau-

reque de 210

La-Sande, Dr. Francisco . 144

Las Casas
Lavazares,

Guido de

72, 111
. 164

INDEX.

329

PAGE

Laws of the Indies . 123

Lawton, General . . 301, 307

Ledesma, Bartolom^ de 162

Legarda, Hon. Benito . 310

Legaspi . . 126, 137
Leyte, religious revolt at . 206

Liga Filipina . 280

Lima, Pablo de . 162

Limahong 140

Limasana . 78

Loaisa, Jofre de 16, 115

Lobo, Sabastian 203

Loyola, Ignatius . 123

Lukban, General . 309

Luna, Antonio de . . 296

Luis, Don . . . . 151

Luther, Martin .... 74, 122

Luzon, conquest of . .136

Luzuriaga, Hon. Jos6 . . . 310

Mabini, Don Apolinario . 298
MacArthur, General 301, 308

Madeira Islands . . .62
Magellan . 16, 74, 81, 114

Magellan, Straits of 75

Maharlica . . . 103

Maine, destruction of the 292

Malaspina, Captain 245

Malay Archipelago about

1400 . . . 59

Malayo-Polynesian speech 90

Malayan peoples 31, 32, 35, 90

Malays, Mohammedan 106

Malays and Hindus 36

Malolos campaign . . 299

Malvar, General 309

Manchus. . 57

Mandaya . . 34

Manguianes ... 33

Manobo . . . 34

Manila —

about 1600. . 177

attacked by Chinese . 140

battle of . . 298

capture of ...... . 294

Manila — Continued

Chinese in . 180
decline of . 185
earthquake at .. 155
founded . 135
importance of 173
improvements in 218
opened to trade . 259
taken by the English 235
taken by the Spanish 133
Manila Normal School 276
March, Major . 304
Mariveles, Dutch fleet cap-
tured at 192
Masonry 280
Maximilian . 73
May-nila. . . 133
Mediaeval period . 42
Mendoza, viceroy of Mexico 109
Mexico . . . . 73, 253
Mincopies . . 31
Mindoro, pirates of 132
Mindanao —

early history of 18

people of . . . 34

Spanish settlements on 266

Ming dynasty 57

Mining, Bureau of . 312

Missionary, the Spanish 123

Mogul, Great 50

Mohammed 37

Mohammedans . 47

Moluccas abandoned 208

Monasticism, rise of 119

Mongols, Tartar 54

Morga, Antonio de . 17, 20

Moro forts destroyed . 270

Moro Malays, trade with 99
Moro pirates —

activity of . 207

first expedition against 132

in 1771 240

increase of ... 228

ofTawiTawi, . 220

rise of 153

330

INDEX.

PAGE

Moros of Jolo, attacked . . 146
Moros —

Corcuera's expedition

against 198

origin of name . ... 41

Morones, Juan de .... 162

Moses, Prof. Bernard . 308, 315

Mota, Captain Lorenzo de la 163

Municipal governments . . 265

Museum, Philippine ... 313

Napoleon 1 251

Natives under Spanish rule 110
Navarrete, Father Fernan-
dez 18

Navigator, the 61

Navy established ... . 245

Negritos 25, 98

Negros, occupation of . . . 301

Netherlands independent . 188

Newspapers 273

Non-Christian Tribes, Bu-
reau of 312

Normal School, Manila 276

Northern route discovered . 131

Nueva Caceres, foimded . . 146

Nueva Segovia .... 147, 172

Nueva Caceres 172

Nueva Vergara 268

Obando, Marquis of
Orang benua . . .
Orang laut ....
Orinoco River . . .
Ortega, Don Joaquin
Oscariz, Don Mariano
Otis, General . . .
Oyanguran, Don Jos6

Pacific Ocean discovered

Palaos

Pampangas, revolt of . .

Pampango

Pangasinian . . .
Papuans

228
32
268
70
264
266
297
267

73
224
206
35
35
31

Pardo de Tavera, Dr. Joa-
quin 22, 92, 192, 280, 310
Pelews . . . . 224, 253
Pelew Islands . . . . 117
Peru, conquest of . .73
Philip the Handsome 73
Philippine civil commission 308
Philippine Islands discov-
ered 78

Philippines —
America and . . . 287-320
a subject for historical

study . . 9-24

American ideas about 295

as a Spanish colony . . . 108

Chinese in the 97

coming of the Spaniards . 40
development of ... . 9
during the period of Euro-
pean revolution. . 231-258
expedition to . 115, 117, 126
first archbishop in . . . 152
historical accounts of . 15
Inquisition in . . . 212

Jesuits expelled from . 239
navy established in 245

peoples of ... . 25-42
political decline of 212

rebellions in . . . 254

returned to Spain . 236

separated from Mexico . 253
Spanish occupation of . . 16
threatened by Chinese . 210
under the English. . 234

visited by Dampier ... 21
Philosophy of the eighteenth

century, new . . . 231
Pigafetta, Antonio .... 16
Pilar, Gregorio del . . 303

Pineda, Don Antonio . . 245
Pintados, Islas de los . . 131
Piracy . . . 196, 228, 246, 271
Pirates . 132, 153, 220, 240, 268

Pizarro 73

Polistas 168

INDEX.

331

PAGE

Polo, Marco 54

Poniente, Islas del ... . 79

Portuguese colonies . 147, 195
Portuguese discover Eastern

passage . . . 61

Posts, Bureau of . . 312

Press, influence of . 273

Primo de Rivera, General 285

Printing, Bureau of . 313

Prisons . .... 312

Progress and revolution . . 259

Pueblo 262

Raja

102

RebeUion of 1896 .

283

Recollects ....

169

Reformation

121

Regidor, Don Antonio

280

Religion of the Filipinos .

105

Renaissance .

45

Repartimentos ....

. Ill

Residencia

. 204

Retana, W. E

20

Revenues and Expenditures 313
Revolt of 1841 . . . 263

Revolution ... 249
Rizal y Mercado, Dr. Jos6,

17, 280, 284
Rojo, Don Manuel . . 229
Ronquillo, Don Gonzalo de,

146, 164
Robertson, J. A 22

Saavedra, Don Alvaro de 16, 116
Salazar, Domingo de . 168

Salamanca, Juan Cerezo de . 196
Salcedo, Don Diego de 212

Salcedo, Juan de . 132

Samal pirates . . 268

Samal ports destroyed . 269
Sarnar discovered . 78

San Andres, orphanage of 170
San Augustin, Fr. Caspar de 17
Sanchez, Alonso . . . 149

San Augustin, Padre . .100

FAOE

Sanchez, Padre Alonzo . . 168

Sandico, Don Teodoro . . 298

Sangleyes 184

San Juan de Dios hospital . 120

Sarangani 118

Santa Potenciana . 170

Santibanez Ignacio .... 152

Santo Nino 129

Sanvitores Padre Diego

Luis de . . 213

Sedeno, Padre Antonio 168

Segovia, Nueva .... 172

Seljuks 47

Schwan, General 305

School, Manila Normal . . 276

Schools 169, 274, 314

Siam, treaty with .... 218

Sierra, Don Juan . . . . 218

Signal Service 312

Silonga ' . . . 151

SUva, Juan de 192

Sioco 141

Slavery 63,103

Smith, Gen. James .... 301

Soliman, Raja 133

Sonnerat, M 21

Soutli America, rebellion in 253

Spaniards 171, 256

Spain —

colonial policy of ... 113

decline of 252

economic policy of . . . 220

war with United States . 292
Spanish —
found a post at Zambo-

anga 196

increase in population . . 276

settle Mindanao . . . 266

take Moro city of Manila 133

Spanish and Portuguese . 177

Spanish attitude toward

education ... . 277
Spanish expedition to Bor-
neo 145

Spanish government ... 163

332

INDEX.

>

PAGE

PAGB

Spanish occupation . .

140

Urbistondo, Governor . . .

268

Spanish misrule ended

286

Ufdaneta, Andres de 100, 115

,125

Spanisli rule estabhshed 156

, 165

Spanish soldier and the

Van Noort . .

154

Spanish missionary

108

Vargas, Don Jos6 Basco de

242

Spilbergen, Admiral

193

Velarde, Father Murillo

17

Statistics, Bureau of

313

Venice

49

Sual opened to trade

261

Vespucci, Amerigo . . .

71

Subanon

34

Vera, Dr. Santiago de . 148

162

Sulu . . .

268

Vidal, Montero y . .

20

Swingli . .

122

Vigan ...

172

Taft, William H.

308

Villalobos, Lopez de. . 16

117

Tag&log language .

90

Volcanic eruptions

254

TagMog people .

35

Tagal, Moro pirate

197

Weather Bureau .

312

Tagbanria

34

Wellington . .

252

Tamerlane . .

56

Weyler, Governor-General

292

Tartar Mongols

54

Wheaton, General

301

Tattooing

131

Wittert, Admiral

192

Tawi Tawi, pirates of

220

Wolfe, General .

233

Taycosama

152

Worcester, Dean C.

308

Temate, taken by Spanish .

17

Worms, Diet at. .

74

Tierra del Fuego

76

Wright, Luke E. .

308

Timour

56

Writing, systems of . .

93

Tobacco industry

242

Writings, early Filipino

96

Tondo, District of

185

Torre, Don Carlos de la .

278

Xavier, Saint Francis . .

118

Torre, Don Francisco de la.

236

Torre, Hernando de la

116

Young, General. . . .

303

Toscanelli

67

Yusef .

82

Totanes, Padre

96

Trade —

Zamal . . . .

78

restricted .
routes of .
Venetian monopoly of .
with the East .

174
51
52
51

Zamboanga —

abandoned . . 18
opened to trade . .
refounded . .

,208
261
218

Treasurer,' Insular .
Trias, Gen. Mariano

312

298

Spanish post at . .
settled

196
266

Turks . . ...

47

Zamora, Father

279

United States —

Zulueta, M. .

22

development of

287

Zuniga, Father Joaquin Mar-

war with Spain

292

tinez de

19

Best Books for
Philippine Schools

Baldwin Ptimer — Tagfalog Edition

Gibbs's Natural Number Primer

Gibbs's Insular Primer

Gibbs's Insular First Reader

Gibbs's Insular Second Reader

Gibbs's Insular Third Reader

Gibbs's Insular First Lessons in Langfuage

Barrows's History of the Philippines

Roddy-Gibbs's Philippine School Geography

Milne's Elements of Arithmetic — Metric Edition

MacClintock's The Philippines

'"T^HESE books have been prepared with special
reference to the pedagogical conditions of the
Philippine Islands, and are therefore suited to the
requirements of the insular schools. They are all
new, embodying the best methods of presentation
and the best mechanical workmanship. The bind-
ings are substantial, and the illustrations numerous
and attractive.

For detailed descriptions, terms for
introduction, etc., address

American Book Company

100 WsvsKiiYgtoiv Squa.re, New York City

rpviii- T 1

A UNIQUE BOOK

The Natural Number
Primer

By DAVID GIBBS, S. B. (Harvard)

Formerly Superintendent of Schools, Hudson and Groton, Mass. , and
Division Superintendent of Schools, Philippine Islands

Price, 25 cents

UNLIKE all other books, this primer teaches the
most elementary ideas and forms of number and
of language, at the same time. It may be used
either with or independently of the regular reading primer.
As a Language Primer it develops a practical vocabulary
and the power of reading and expression. As a Number
Primer it teaches in a very simple, logical way, the first
steps in number. It is easy, and appeals to the natural
interest of the child in counting, besides being adapted
to his various capacities. There are abundant illustra-
tions and very simple drawings which serve as models for
the child. Each new term is illustrated and introduced
in script. In the footnotes are helpful suggestions for
teachers, outlining the oral work and blackboard drill.
The book will overcome many difficulties now commonly
found in teaching this subject, and will supplement thor-
oughly and satisfactorily the work of the teacher.

Write for Descriptive Circular

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO

Milne's Arithmetics

By WILLIAM J. MILNE, Ph.D., LL.D.
President of the New York State Normal College, Albany, N. Y.

TWO-BOOK SERIES THREE-BOOK SERIES

Elements of Arithmetic $0.30 Primary Arithmetic . $0.25

Intermediate Arithmetic . 30
Standard Arithmetic . .65 Standard Arithmetic . .65

IT is not enough for pupils to understand arithmetical
processes ; they must be able to use them accurately

and rapidly. It is evident, therefore, that the best
text-books in arithmetic are those which give the pupil
a thorough and practical knowledge of the study, and,
following this, readiness in applying this knowledge to
the common affairs of everyday life.

Milne's Arithmetics meet all these conditions and
requirements in a natural, logical, and practical manner.

In Either a Two-Book or a Three-Book Series. To meet
the varying needs of teachers these arithmetics are now
issued in two editions — a two-book series and a three-
book series. Other books of a similar nature have
been published from time to time, but none have ever
attained the extraordinary popularity of Milne's Arith-
metics. Their success has been entirely without prece-
dent. The method employed is inductive for the most
part, yet it is neither tedious nor redundant. The large
number and practical character of the problems included,
and the application of business methods of computation
in their solution, form noteworthy and valuable features
of the books. Other important- characteristics are their
admirable arrangement, their use of sound pedagogical
principles, the absence of all useless matter, their com-
prehensive character, and their exact statements. No
other arithmetics are more modem in every respect.

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO

Isfil

Webster's School Dictionaries

REVISED EDITIONS

WEBSTER'S SCHOOL DICTIONARIES in their revised form
constitute a progressive series, carefully graded and especially
adapted for Primary Schools, Common Schools, High Schools,
Academies, and private students. These Dictionaries have all
been thoroughly revised, entirely reset, and made to conform in all
essential respects to chat great standard authority in English —
Webster's International Dictionary.

WEBSTER'S PRIMARY SCHOOL DICTIONARY . . $0.48
Containing over 20,000 words and meanings, with over 400
illustrations.

WEBSTER'S COMMON SCHOOL DICTIONARY . . $0.72
Containing over 25,000 words and meanings, with over 500

illustrations.

WEBSTER'S HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY . . . $0.98
Containing about 37,000 words and definitions, and an appendix
giving a pronouncing vocabulary of Biblical, Classical, Mythologi-
cal, Historical, and Geographical proper names, with over 800
illustrations.

WEBSTER'S ACADEMIC DICTIONARY

Cloth, $1.50; Indexed, $1.80
Half Calf, 3.75; Indexed, 8.00
Abridged directly from the International Dictionary, and giving
the orthography, pronunciations, definitions, and synonyms of the
large vocabulary of words in common use, with an appendix con-
taining various useful tables, with over 800 illustrations.

SPECIAL EDITIONS
Webster's Countinghouse Dictionary . Sheep, Indexed, $3.40
Webster's Condensed Dictionary . Cloth, $1.44; Indexed, 1.75
The Same . . . Half Calf, 3.75; Indexed, 3.00

Webster's Handy Dictionary 15

Webster's Pocket Dictionary. Cloth 67

The Same. Roan Flexible ... . . .69

The Same. Roan Tucks . . . . .78

The Same. Morocco, Indexed 90

Webster's Practical Dictionary . . . . .80

Copies of any of Webster's Dictionaries will be sent, prepaid, to any
address on receipt of the price by th^ Publishers:

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO